fiELps  IN  THE  Use  of 

Good  Enclis 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  LOS  ANGFLES 

THE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


^ 


JUL  15 19 


Southern  Branch 
of  the 

University  of  California 


Los  Angeles 


Form  L   I 


HELPS 

SOUTHERN  BRANCH, 

ilNIVERmLteoQAUFORN'A, 
LIBRARY, 

l^S  ANOCLBS.  CALIF. 

GOOD  ENGLISH: 


A  HAND-BOOK  FOR  ALL  WHO  DESIRE  TO  SPEAK 
OR  WRITE  CORRECT  ENGLISH. 


BY 

ALBERT   N.  RAUB,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 

Author  of  "Les?ons  in  English,"  "Practical  English  Grammar," 

"Practical  Rhetoric,"  "Studies  in  English  and  Ameri- 

■  CAN  Literature,"  "Methods  of  Teaching," 

"School  Manageiment,"  etc. 


PHILADELPHIA  : 
R  A  T J  B     & '  C  O 


■M334 


Copyright,  1897, 
BY   ALBERT    N.   RAUB. 


Electkotvpkd  by 
Westcott  &  Thomson,  Piiilada. 


WiLMAM   RtlTTKR  COMPANV, 

BOOK    MANOFACTIUEKS, 

SeVKNTH  Aav  CHERRY   STREF.TB,  PlIILADA. 


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PREFACE. 


\^  The  object  of  this  book  is  that  of  serving  as  a  con- 
"^  venient  hand-book  for  editors,  lawyers,  teachers,  clergy- 
men and  others  who  have  occasion  to  write  or  speak 
the  English  language,  and  who  desire  to  do  so  in 
accordance  with  approved  modern  usage. 

The  aim  of  the  author  has  been  to  make  the  book 
helpful  to  all  who  may  find  it  necessary  or  interesting 
to  consult  its  pages,  especially  on  the  subjects  of  Cap- 
ital Letters,  Syllabication,  Syntax,  Punctuation,  Letter- 
Writing  and  Diction. 

Only  those  points  in  Grammar  have  been  discussed 
which,  it  is  thought,  may  prove  most  helpful  to  those 
who  desire  to  speak  or  write  the  language  correctly. 

Many  sentences  taken  from  the  works  of  reputable 
writers,  but  illustrating  violations  of  correct  usage,  have 
been  incorporated  in  the  book,  and  the  proper  correc- 
tions indicated,  either  in  marks  of  parenthesis  where 
a  word  has  been  improperly  omitted  or  in  brackets 
where  the  wrong  word  has  been  used  by  the  author 
quoted. 


4  PREFACE. 

A  list  of  synonyms  most  frequently  used,  and  a  list 
of  words  most  liable  to  be  misused,  as  given  in  the 
book,  ought  to  be  both  interesting  and  beneficial  to  all 
who  desire  to  express  themselves  accurately. 

The  author  hopes  that  the  book  may  meet  with  the 
approval  of  all  who  are  interested  in  the  use  of  good 
English. 

A.  N.  R. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

CAPITAL   LETTEES      .    .  11 
First  Word  in  a  Book  ..11 
First   Word    of    a    Sen- 
tence     11 

Numbered  Clauses   ...  11 
First  Word  of  an  Exam- 
ple    12 

After     an     Introductory 

Word 12 

An  Enumeration  of  Par- 
ticulars      12 

Direct  Questions   ....  12 

Direct  Quotations     ...  13 

Poetry 13 

Proper  Names 13 

Particular  Objects    ...  13 

Proper  Adjectives     ...  13 

Titles 13 

Names  of  the  Deity     .    •  13 

landO 13 

Book  Titles 13 

Common  Nouns     ....  14 

The  Bible 14 

Specific  Terms 14 

Special  Rules 14 

Letter  Addresses  ....  14 

Letter  Closing 15 

A  Series  of  Questions  .    .  15 

Indirect  Quotations  ...  15 

Seasons,  Months,  Days    .  16 


•  PAGE 

Pronouns      Eepresenting 

Names  of  the  Deity  .    .  16 

Titles  as  Parts  of  Names  .  17 

Tlie  Word  State    ....  17 
Objects   or   Events  made 

Particular 18 

Names  of  Professions  .    .  18 

Personification 19 

Words      Derived      from 

Proper  Names  ....  19 

Titles  of  Books,  etc.     .    .  20 

Names  of  Places  ....  21 

Names  of  Cities    ....  21 

Added  Names 21 

Words  and  Phrases  ...  22 

De,  du,  von,  etc 22 

One  Capital  Letter  ...  22 

Two  Capital  Letters     .    .  23 

Complex  Names   ....  24 

St.  for  Street 25 

SYLLABICATION    ....  28 

The  Use  of  the  Hyphen  .  30 

SPELLING 35 

Final  E 35 

Final  Y 35 

Final  Consonant    ....  36 

Endings  in  f,  1,  or  s  .    .    .  36 

Ize  or  ise? 39 

5 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Able  and  ible 39 

le  or  ei  ? 46 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR  .   .  41 

Nouns 42 

Number 43 

Plurals,  how  formed    .    .  48 

Nouns  Ending  in  Y     .    .  44 

Nouns  Ending  in  O  .    .    .  44 

Nouns  Ending  in/  or/e  .  45 

Nouns  Ending  in  jf .    .    .  45 

Plurals  of  Figures,  etc.   .  45 

Plurals  of  Proper  Nouns  .  45 

Complex  Proper  Names  .  45 
Plurals     of      Compound 

Nouns 46 

Corapotmd    Nouns    from 

Foreign  Languages  .    .  46 

Abstract  Nouns     ....  48 

Two-form  Plurals     ...  48 

Plurals  of  Fractions     .    .  50 

Collective  Nouns  ....  50 

Whereabouts 51 

Gender 51 

Ma.sculine  without  a  fem- 
inine form 52 

Names  of  occupations  in 

common  gender     ...  52 

Case 53 

The  Possessive  Case     .    .  53 

Syxt.vx  of  Nouns     ...  54 
Mi.stakes  in  Writing  tiie 

Pos.sessive 54 

Pos.sessive  of  Compound 

Words 55 

The  I'ossessive  when  an 
Adjective    follows    the 

Noim 55 

In  joint  owiR-rship   ...  56 


PAOE 

In  separate  ownership  .    .  o6 
The       Po.sse.ssive       with 

Nouns  in  Apposition  .  56 
The    Possessive    with    a 

Pronoun  in  Apposition  57 
The  Possessive  limiting  a 
Participial  Noun  ...  57 
The  Nominative  Case    .  59 
T'he  Nominative  Cane   Inde- 
pendent    60 

The  Objective  Case    .    .  61 
The  Objective  Case  after 

a  Verb 61 

The    Factitive    Construc- 
tion              .61 

The  Objective  Case  after 

a  Preposition     ....  62 

The  Case  by  Apposition  .  65 

Same  Ca.se  AFTER  A  Verb  .  67 

"It  is  me" 68 

Notes  on  Nouns    ....  69 

Adjectives 71 

Complex  Adjectives     .    .  71 

Compound  Adjectives  .    .  71 

Numeral  Adjectives     .    .  72 

Comparison 73 

Syntax  of  Adjectives    .  74 
Limiting  Precedes  Quali- 
fying    74 

Ordinals   Precede  Cardi- 
nals       74 

Ordinal  Precedes  Noun   .  74 

Cardinal  Follows  Noim   .  74 
IMural  Adjective  requires 

Plural  Noun 76 

"A  ten-foot  pole"    ...  76 

"I  feel  bad" 76 

Order  of  Adjectives  ...  77 

"Farther,"   "further"  .  77 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

"Each  other"  ....  77 
"This,"  "these"  ...  77 
The    article   before   few, 

dozen,  etc 78 

Syntax  of  Articles    .    .    78 
The  article  before  ' '  few ' ' 

and  "little"  ....  79 
The  article  repeated  .  .  79 
The  article  before  several 

adjectives 79 

,"Sing  the  tirst   and  the 

second  stanza"  ....    80 
Repetition    of    the    arti- 
cle   81 

The  article  before  titles  .   82 
A  or  an  before  h  .    .    .    .83 
None,   every,   each,   any, 
either,    neither,    many 

83,  84 

All  and  whole 84 

Fewer  and  less 84 

Peonoun.s 86 

Two-form  Pronouns     .    .   86 
Syntax      of      Personal 

Pronouns 87 

Antecedents  connected  by 

and 87 

Antecedents  connected  by 

or  or  nor 87 

Antecedents  connected  by 

as  well  as 88 

Order  of  Pronouns  ...      88 
Use  of  we  and  you     .    .      89 
Eelative  and  Interrog- 
ative Pronouns     .    .   90 
Who,  wliich,  what,  that  .    90 
Syntax      of      Relative 

Pronouns 91 

The  Restrictive  Clause    .    91 


PAGE 

The  Relative  Represent- 

ing  a  Collective  Noun  .     92 

That  ior  who  or  which  .      92 

Reflexive  Pronouns    .     94 

Verbs  .  ■ 95 

The  Transitive  Verb  .  .  95 
The  Intransitive  Verb  .      95 

Voice         ,    .      96 

Mode 96 

Tense 98 

Syntax  of  Verbs    ...    101 
Verbs  having  Collective 

Nouns  as  Subjects  .    .    102 
Subjects    connected    by 
"and"   or   "as    Avell 

as" 103 

Subjects    connected    by 

"or"  or  "nor"     .    .    105 
The  Subject  with  Modi- 
fiers   107 

Nominative   to   be   Ex"- 

pressed 108 

Discrepant  Subjects  .  .  108 
The  Subject  limited  by 

Adjectives 110 

Distributive      Pronouns 

as  Subjects Ill 

Indefinite      Pronominal 

Adjectives  as  Subjects    111 
Relative     Pronouns     as 

Subjects 112 

Relative  Pronouns  to  be 

Repeated 113 

Connected  Verbs  ...  114 
Ellipsis  of  the  Principal 

Verb ]15 

Disjoined  Subjects  ...  115 
The  Concord  of '-There"  ]16 
Error  of  Proximity    .    .    117 


CONTENTS. 


The  Verb  after  "  Than  " 

as  a  Connective  .    .    .  119 

Infinitives 120 

Participles 123 

Adverbs 125 

Phrases  Modified    .    .    .125 

Independent  Adverbs    .  126 

Conjunctive  Adverbs  .    .  126 

"The"  an  Adverb    .    .  126 

The  Placing  of  Adverbs  .  127 
Improper  use  of  "  how  " 

and  "how  that"     .    .  127 
Improper  use  of"  wlien  " 

and  "where"  ...  128 
"Like"  as  a  Conjunc- 
tive Adverb  .  .  .  128 
Complex  Adverbs  ...  131 
Compound  Adverbs  .  .  131 
' '  Farther ' '  for  ' '  fur- 
ther"      131 

Prepositions 133 

"Set  in,"  "Were  look- 
ed for"     133 

Appropriate       Preposi- 
tions        133 

Prepositions  become  Ad- 
verbs       133 

Conjunctions 139 

Correhitives 140 

Introductory      Conjunc- 
tions        141 

".\s  follows"      ....  141 

"Than  whom"  ....  141 

".And  which"    ....  142 
"That"       instead       of 
"but,"     "l.ut    that," 

"lest"      143 

"Not     only,"      "but," 

"but  also"      ....  143 


PAGE 

Words  Used  as  Different 

Parts  of  Speech  .    .    .  145 

"A.s,"  "before,"  "af- 
ter," "till,"  "imtil," 
"both,"  "l)ut,"  "ei- 
ther and  neither," 
"for,"  "like," 
"since,"  "that," 
"then,"  "what," 
"well,"  "while," 
"yet" 145-150 

PUNCTUATION 151 

The  Period 152 

Complete  Sentences    .    .  152 

Abbreviations      ....  152 

Complete  Expressions    .  153 

Numbers  of  Pai-agraphs  154 

The  Comma 154 

Compound  Sentences  .    .  154 
Relative  Clauses     .    .    .  154 
I>ependent  Clauses     .    .  155 
Parenthetical      Expres- 
sions    1 56 

Intermediate  Expres- 
sions     .    .  157 

Transposed  Elements     .  158 

Series 158 

Words  in  Pairs    ....  159 
Words  in  .\pposition  .    .  159 
Words  in  the  Vocative   .  159 
The  Absolute  Construc- 
tion    ino 

Omissiini  of  the  Verb     .  161 

J^iif^ical  Subject    ....  161 

Quotations 161 

Numeral  Figures   .    .    .  161 

-Ambiguity 161 

The  Semicolon    ....  162 


CONTENTS. 


9 


PAGE 

Parts  of  Sentences  .    .    .  102 

A  General  Terra     .    .    .  ICi'l 

Sliort  Sentences  ....  1(32 

Successive  Clauses  ...  163 

Additional  Clauses     .    .  1C3 

Before  "As" 1G3 

"Yes"  and  "No"    .    .  164 

The  Colon 164 

Parts  of  Sentences  .    .    .  164 

Additional  Clauses     .    .  164 

Quotations 165 

Formal  Introduction  .    .  165 

Title-Pages 165 

The   Interrogation 

Point  ....'...  165 

Questions 165 

Doubt 166 

The     Exclamation 

Point 166 

Interjections 166 

Exclamations 167 

The  Dash 168 

Sudden  Changes  ....  168 

Parenthesis 168 

A  Pause 168 

An  Omission 168 

Summing- Up 169 

Repetition 169 

Keflex  Apposition  .    .    .  169 

Titles  Run  In      ....  169 

Dialogues 169 

With  Other  Marks     .    .  169 

Marks  of  Parenthesis  .  170 

Quotation  Marks  ...  170 

Direct  Quotations   .    .    .  171 
A   Quotation    within    a 

Quotation     ....  171 

Quoted  Paragi-aphs     .    .  172 

The  Hyphen 172 


PAGE 

Other  Marks  of  Punc- 
tuation    172 

Brackets 172 

The  Apo.strophe  .    .    .    .  173 

The  Ellipsis 173 

The  Section 173 

The  Paragraph    ....  173 

The  Caret 173 

The  Index 173 

The  Brace 173 

The  Ditto  Mark  .    .    .    .  174 

The  Cedilla 174 

The  Tilde 174 

The  Diaeresis 174 

The  Macron 174 

The  Breve 174 

Leaders 174 

Book  Notes 175 

A     Corrected     Proof- 

Sheet 176 

Explanation  of  Proof-Marks  177 

Sizes  of  Books    ....  178 

LETTER- WRITING  ...    179 
The  Heading 179 


The  Introduction  .    .    . 

181 

The  Address    •    •    .    .    . 

182 

The  Salutation    .... 

184 

The  Body  of  the  Let- 

ter    

187 

The  Conclusion  .... 

188 

The          Complimentary 

Closing 

188 

The  Signature     .... 

189 

The  Superscription  .    . 

190 

Invitations     and     Re- 

grets    

192 

Hints  on  Letter-Writ- 

ing     

193 

10 


CONTENTS. 


Important      Abbrevia- 
tions     194 

CHOICE  OF  WORDS  .  .  200 
Noun  Synonyms  ....  200 
Adjective  Synonyms     .   209 


PAGE 

Verb  Synonyms  .  .  .  .  219 
Adverb  Synonyms  .  .  .  225 
Preposition  Synonyms  .  227 
Spurious  Words  ....  231 
Words    Liable    to    be 

Misused 233 


HELPS 

IN  THE  USE  OF 

GOOD  ENGLISH. 


CAPITAL  LETTERS. 


In  the  employment  of  capital  letters  usage  is  nearly 
uniform,  though  occasional  differences  exist  in  the  appli- 
cation of  some  of  the  rules. 

The  following  are  the  chief  rules  for  the  use  of  capital 
letters : 

1.  The  First  Word  in  a  Book,  etc. — The  first  word 
in  every  book,  tract,  essay,  etc.,  and  of  every  chapter  or 
section,  also  the  first  word  of  every  note,  letter,  or  other 
writing,  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

2.  The  First  Word  of  a  Sentence. — The  first  word 
of  every  sentence  or  its  equivalent  should  begin  with  a 
capital  letter.     Thus, 

"  Where  have  you  been  ?"     "  It  is  a  very  pleasant  day." 

3.  Numbered  Clauses,  etc. — The  first  word  of  each 
of  a  series  of  numbered  clauses  or  phrases  should  begin 
with  a  capital  letter.     Thus, 

"He  stated  three  things:  1.  That  he  had  not  been  present; 
2.  That  his  brother  had  not  been  present;  3.  That  neither  had 
any  desire  to  be  present." 

11 


12  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

■1.  First  "Word  of  an  Example. — ^The  first  word  of  a 
clause  or  a  sentence,  when  used  as  an  example,  should 
begin  with  a  capital  letter.     Thus, 

Ex.  "  To  err  is  luiinan." 

5.  After  an  Introductory  "Word. —  The  first  word 
after  an  introductory  word  or  clause  should  begin  with 
a  capital  letter.     Thus, 

Hesolved,  "  That  all  land  should  be  taxed." 

jBe  it  enacted,  etc.,  "  That  a  tax  of  three  uiills,"  etc. 

6.  In  an  Enumeration  of  Particulars. — The  first 
word  of  each  new  line  in  an  enumeration  of  particulars, 
when  arranged  in  lines,  should  begin  with  a  capital  let- 
ter.    Thus, 

The  expenses  of  the  committee  were  as  follows: 

For  Advertising $4.20 

For  Clerk  Hire 10.00 

For  Postage 7.00 

It  will  be  noticed  that  tlie  chief  items  in  a  statement 
of  this  kind  or  in  a  bill  begin  with  capital  letters.   Thus, 

Mk.  John  Henderson, 

To  William  Brown  &  Co.,        Dr. 

To    4  lb.  Coffee     @  30^ $1.20 

"   10  lb.  Sugar     @    6^ 60 

"    12  yd.  Muslin®    7^ 84 

7.  Direct  Questions. — The  first  word  of  a  direct  ques- 
tion should  begin  with  a  capital  letter.     Thus, 

"The  question  is,  Where  can  we  get  a  better?" 

This  rule  is  taken  also  by  some  to  cover  an  important, 
statement.     Thus, 

"My  remark  was  this:  If  he  does  not  do  the  work  properly, 
he  must  be  dismissed." 


CAPITAL  LETTERS.  13 

8.  Direct  Quotation. — The  first  word  of  every  direct 
quotation  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter.     Thus, 

The  Bible  says,  "  Blessed  are  the  meek." 

9.  Poetry. — The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry 
should  begin  with  a  capital  letter.     Thus, 

"  Now  came  still  evening  on,  and  twilight  gray 
Had  in  her  sober  livery  all  things  clad." 

10.  Proper  Names. — Every  pro])er  name  should  begin 
with  a  capital  letter.     Thus, 

John,  Susan,  New  York,  Thomas  Jefferson  Jones. 

11.  Particular  Objects  or  Events. — Words  naming 
particular  objects  or  events  should  begin  with  capital 
letters.     Thus, 

Niagara  Falls,  Fourth  of  July,  The  Statue  of  Liberty,  The 
National  Educational  Association,  The  Park. 

12.  Proper  Adjectives.  —  Adjectives  derived  from 
proper  names  should  begin  with  capital  letters.     Thus, 

English,  American,  Welsh,  Johnsonian. 

13.  Titles. — Titles  of  honor,  office,  or  respect,  usually 
begin  with  capitals.     Thus, 

President  Cleveland,  General  Grant,  Superintendent  Brooks, 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  Mr.  Williams,  Richard  the  Third,  Professor 
Greene,  Colonel  Meredith,  Mrs.  Johnson. 

14.  Names  of  the  Deity. — All  appellations  of  the 
Deity  should  begin  with  capital  letters.     Thus, 

God,  Almighty,  the  Divine  Architect. 

15.  I  and  O. — The  words  I  and  0  should  always  be 
written  as  capital  letters. 

16.  Book  Titles. — In  the  titles  of  books,  or  the  sub- 


14  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

jects  of  essays,  etc.,  eveiy  noun,  adjective,  verb,  and 
adverb,  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter.     Tlius, 
"  Helps  in  the  Use  of  Good  EngUsh." 

17.  Common  Nouns. — Common  nouns,  when  strongly 
personified,  should  begin  with  capital  letters.     Thus, 

"  Come  when  his  task  of  Fame  is  wrought." 

18.  The  Bible. — When  reference  is  had  to  the  divine 
origin  of  the  Bible,  the  name  of  the  book  itself  or  any 
particular  part  of  the  book  should  begin  witli  a  capital 
letter.     Thus, 

"The  Holy  Bible";  "The  Acts  of  the  Apostles." 

When  the  Bible  is  spoken  of  simply  as  a  book,  as 
"Several  bibles  were  sold  on  Saturday,"  no  ca2:)ital  is 
required. 

Capital  letters  are  used  also  to  begin  the  names  of  other 
sacred  writings,  as  Tiie  Koran,  The  Zend  Avesta,  etc. 

19.  Specific  Terms. — The  words  state,  academy,  col- 
lege, university,  park,  etc.,  when  used  specifically,  either 
as  nouns  or  as  adjectives,  should  begin  with  capital  let- 
ters, and  at  other  times  with  smaller  letters.     Thus, 

"The  State,  a  state  election  ;  The  College,  a  college  course; 
A  drive  in  the  Park,  the  park  along  the  river." 

The  foregoing  rules  cover  the  ordinary  cases  where 
words  should  begin  with  capitals,  but  in  the  case  of 
hand-bills,  advertisements,  etc.,  much  is  left  to  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  printer. 

Special  Rules. 

The  following  s})ecial  rules  for  the  use  of  capital  letters 
should  be  observed  : 

Letter  Addresses. — In  the  address  of  a  letter  the  first 


CAPITAL  LETTERS.  15 

word  of  the  salutation  and  of  the  title  should  begin  with 
capital  letters,  but  no  other  words.     Thus,  we  write, 

Dear  Sir,  My  dear  Sir,  My  dear  Aunt  Lizzie,  My  very  dear 
Mother,  My  much  esteemed  Friend,  etc. 

Letter  Closing'. — Much  the  same  rule  holds  good 
here;  namely,  that  only  the  first  word  and  the  title 
should  begin  with  capital  letters.  Formerly,  many 
writers  began  each  word  of  the  closing  with  a  capital 
letter;  thus,  Yours  Very  Truly,  but  the  best  usage  is 
against  this  at  present,  and  one  should  write.  Yours 
respectfully.  Yours  very  truly, 


Cy  ■a.O'yi,^    'yf^■^   ■aetZ'i    ^^-tz^^-ei-i.^ 


^XU'i    ^i.€£-'yit/. 


Cy  ifz -/#«_,    @^^^    -MA-i-t^  ^^•e^ei^  cd-^ee^m^ 

A  Series  of  Questions. — When  a  series  of  questions 
is  propounded,  each  of  which  requires  a  separate  an- 
swer, each  question,  though  but  part  of  a  sentence, 
should  begin  with  a  capital  letter.     Thus, 

What  is  one-third  of  6?     Of  18?    Of  24? 

What  is  the  capital  of  Maine?    Of  Oregon?    Of  Missouri? 

Indirect  Quotations. — Indirect  quotations  do  not  re- 
quire the  use  of  capital  letters. 

Notice  that  in  the  following:  Remember  the  maxim, 
"Honesty  is  the  best  pohcy,"  the  quotation  is  intro- 
duced by  the  use  of  a  capital  letter,  but  the  same  thought 
may  be  conveyed  indirectly  without  the  use  of  either  cap- 
ital letter  or  quotation  marks,  as  follows :  Remember  the 
maxim  that  honesty  is  the  best  policy. 


16  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Seasons,  Months,  and  Days  of  the  Week. — Xo  cap- 
ital letters  are  used  in  writing  the  names  of  the  seasons, 
but  it  is  difierent  in  writing  the  names  of  the  months 
and  the  days  of  the  week,  which  should  always  begin 
with  capital  letters.  This  is  probably  because  some  of 
the  months  and  some  of  the  days  are  named  after  de- 
ities and  persons.  Thus,  January  (Janus),  March  {Mars), 
May  (Male),  June  (Juno),  July  (Julius  Caesar),  August 
(Augustus  Cxsar),  are  all  derived  from  proper  names, 
and  should  begin  with  capital  letters.  In  order  to  make 
the  rule  uniform,  the  name  of  each  month  should,  there- 
fore, begin  with  a  capital  letter.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
days  of  the  week ;  thus,  Sunday  is  sun  day ;  Monday, 
moon  day;  Tuesday,  Tiw^s  day;  WednesdaN^  M^oderi's 
day ;  Thursday,  Thorns  day ;  Friday,  Friga^s  day;  Sat- 
urday, Saturn's  day.  Five  at  least  of  the  names  of  the 
days  of  the  week  are  derived  from  proper  names  and 
should  begin  with  capital  letters.  In  order,  therefore,  to 
make  the  rule  uniform  in  its  application,  the  names  of 
the  months  and  the  days  of  the  week  should  each  begin 
with  a  capital  letter. 

Names  of  the  Deity. — As  stated  in  Rule  14,  all  ap- 
pellations of  the  Deity  should  begin  with  capital  letters, 
but  usage  with  regard  to  writing  pronouns  referring  to 
the  Deity  is  not  uniform.  The  most  careful  writers  of 
English  seem  to  favor  the  use  of  small  letters  rather 
than  capitals  in  beginning  these  pronouns,  except  when 
the  pronoun  is  equivalent  to  the  name  of  the  Deity. 
Relative  pronouns,  Avhen  referring  to  the  Deit\',  begin 
with  small  letters.  Tlie  following  sentence  shows  the 
correct  usage:  "We  prayed  to  Ilim  who  rules  the  world." 

When  a  name  usually  applied  to  tlie  Deity  is  applied 
to  created  beings,  no  c:if)ital  is  used  ;  as,  "  Lord  of  lords, 
King  of  kings.''' 


CAPITAL  LETTERS.  17 

When  the  word  "  heaven  "  is  used  to  mean  the  Deity, 
it  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter;  as,  "  May  Heaven 
protect  us,"  but  when  it  means  the  firmament,  the  Avord 
should  begin  Avith  a  small  letter.  When  it  refers  to  the 
abode  of  the  blest,  it  is  written  by  some  with  a  capital 
letter  and  by  others  without.     Usage  is  not  uniform. 

The  adjectives  universal,  eternal,  divine,  omniscient, 
etc.,  when  applied  to  God,  need  not  begin  Avith  capital 
letters,  but  usage  requires  capital  letters  in  the  follow- 
ing :  Almighty  God,  Infinite  One,  First  Cause,  Supreme 
Being. 

Titles. — When  a  title  is  part  of  a  name,  the  word  in- 
dicating the  title  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter ;  as, 
President  Monroe,  King  James,  Colonel  Thompson;  but 
when  such  titles  follow  the  name  no  capitals  are  used. 
Thus,  we  would  say,  "  James  Monroe  was  president  of 
the  United  States,"  "  James  II.  Avas  king  of  England." 

When  a  title  precedes  a  proper  name  for  the  purpose 
of  explanation,  as,  "The  apostle  Paul,"  "The  prophet 
Isaias,"  "  The  poet  Milton,"  it  begins  Avith  a  small 
letter. 

When  it  is  desirable  to  make  the  title  take  the  place 
of  the  person's  name,  the  title  is  usually  begun  with  a 
capital  letter,  as  in  the  folloAving :  "  The  President  Avill 
give  us  an  audience  at  10  o'clock;"  "The  Teacher  Avill 
begin  his  lectures  this  morning." 

In  the  foregoing  sentences  reference  is  made  to  a  par- 
ticular president  or  teacher,  and  the  Avord  in  either  case 
has  the  force  of  a  proper  noun. 

The  Avord  "state"  is  one  which  is  frequently  Avritten 
imj-iroperly.  Where  it  is  a  specific  term  it  should  begin 
Avith  a  capital  letter;  as,  "The  State  is  responsible;" 
Avhere  it  is  not  a  specific  term  the  Avord  should  begin 
Avith  a  small  letter,  as  in  the  following :  "  Ncav  Jersey 
2 


18  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

and  other  states  bordering  on  the  Ocean."  In  some 
printing  offices  the  direction  to  the  compositors,  espe- 
cially the  learners,  is  to  begin  the  word  "  state  "  with  a 
capital  letter  wherever  it  occurs.  This  is  wrong.  It  is 
correct  to  begin  the  word  "  state  "  with  a  capital  letter 
only  where  it  refers  to  a  particular  state,  or  where  the 
individual  name  of  the  state  having  been  referred  to, 
the  word  "  state  "  is  made  to  take  the  place  of  the  proper 
name  itself.  Thus,  we  write,  "  The  State  of  Virginia  was 
settled  by  the  English ;"  "  Pennsylvania  lies  south  of 
New  York;  the  State  is  noted  for  its  manufactures." 

Even  some  of  our  best  writers  have  violated  these 
rules.  Thus,  Bancroft  writes  of  the  "  canebrakes  of  the 
state  of  Louisiana,"  and  Everett  speaks  of  "the  union 
of  the  States." 

Objects  or  Events  Made  Particular. — Words  wliicli 
particularize  objects  or  events  give  them  the  force  of 
proper  nouns,  and  they  should  therefore  begin  with 
capital  letters.  Thus,  we  may  write,  "  The  young  man 
is  attending  college,"  but  "  The  College  is  the  most  im- 
portant institution  of  the  village."  Similarly  we  write, 
"  The  City  has  a  beautiful  park,"  but  "  The  Park  is  a 
pleasant  place  of  resort." 

When  certain  dates  become  the  names  of  special 
events,  the  chief  words  of  the  date  should  begin  witli 
cai)ital  letters.  We  may  write,  "  Independence  was  de- 
clared on  the  fourth  day  of  July,  177G,"  but  "  The  Fourtli 
of  July  is  one  of  our  chief  holidays."  So  also,  we  write, 
"  The  revolution  of  the  American  colonies  against  Eng- 
land was  entirely  successful,"  or ''The  American  Revo- 
lution led  to  the  independence  of  the  American  colo- 
nies." 

Names  of  Professions,  etc. — When  the  name  applied 
to  a  profession  or  calling  is  considered  in  its  widest  sense, 


CAPITAL  LETTERS.  19 

the  best  usage  is  in  favor  of  beginning  the  word  with  a 
capital  letter.  Thus,  Mandeville  says,  "  For  the  Bar  or 
the  Pulpit."  It  would  be  better  to  write,  "The  calling 
of  the  Teacher  is  honorable,"  rather  than  "  The  calling 
of  the  teacher  is  honorable."  So  also,  ''  The  prosperity 
of  the  Merchant  depends  much  upon  his  honesty  and 
integrity,"  meaning  merchants  as  a  class,  is  a  better 
form  than  "  The  prosperity  of  the  merchant,"  etc., 
which  might  refer  to  an  individual  merchant. 

Personification.  —  According  to  Rule  17,  common 
nouns,  when  strongly  personified,  should  begin  with 
capital  letters;  thus,  "The  entrance  to  the  garden  of 
Hope  was  by  two  gates,  one  of  which  was  kept  by  Rea- 
son, and  the  other  by  Fancy."  But  not  every  noun  tliat 
is  personified  should  be  so  written.  Only  those  which 
are  used  in  the  sense  of  proper  names  should  begin  with 
capital  letters.  In  the  sentence  from  Milton,  "  Wave 
your  tops,  ye  pines,"  the  word  pines,  though  addressed, 
does  not  represent  persons,  and  it  is  not  therefore  written 
with  a  capital  letter. 

"Words  Derived  from  Proper  Names. — Words  de- 
rived from  proper  names  usually  begin  with  capital 
letters ;  as,  American,  Welsh,  French,  Latinize,  Wes- 
ley an,  English,  etc. 

The  two  Avords  "italics  "  and  "  italicize  "  are,  however, 
frequently  written  without  the  use  of  capital  letters. 

Whenever  a  word  derived  from  a  proper  name  has 
lost  its  reference  to  the  original  name,  and  has  taken  its 
place  as  a  common  noun  or  a  common  adjective,  it  no 
longer  is  written  with  a  capital  letter.  Thus,  damask  no 
longer  has  reference  to  Damascus,  the  word  from  which  it 
was  derived.  So  also  colossal  no  longer  has  reference  to 
Colossus,  nor  stentorian  to  Steator,  nor  godlike  to  God,  nor 
artesian  to  Artois,  nor  peach  to  Persia,  nor  muslin  to  Mo- 


20  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

sul ;  hence  none  of  these  words  nor  any  of  their  kind 
are  written  with  capital  letters.  The  same  princii)le 
applies  to  the  writing  of  such  words  as  china-ware, 
champagne,  daguerreotype,  galvanize,  laconic,  academic, 
and  others. 

Titles  of  Books,  etc. — Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  de- 
termine the  exact  meaning  of  an  oral  expression  tliat 
may  be  made  perfectly  clear  when  written,  l^y  the  use 
or  the  non-use  of  a  capital  letter.  Thus,  in  spoken 
language  we  detect  no  diflerence  between  "Webster's 
Speeches "  and  "  Webster's  speeches."  When  the  ex- 
pressions are  written  or  printed  we  recognize  that ''  Web- 
ster's Speeches  "  is  the  title  of  a  book,  while  "  Webster's 
speeches "  means  the  speeches  of  Webster.  So  also, 
"  Longfellow's  Poems  "  and  "  the  poems  of  Longfellow  " 
have  a  different  meaning,  determined  b}^  the  use  or  the 
non-use  of  a  capital  letter. 

The  same  principle  applies  when  the  adjective  new 
precedes  a  noun.  Thus,  "The  new  Ironsides"  refers  to 
a  new  steamer  named  Ironsides,  but  in  the  expression 
"The  New  Ironsides,"  the  name  of  the  steamer  is  "  The 
New  Ironsides^  The  new  Ironsides  is  a  new  Ixjat;  tlie 
New  Ironsides  may  be  either  new  or  old. 

So  we  write  also  of  the  principal  of  a  school  when  we 
refer  to  his  duties,  but  when  we  refer  to  liis  title  we 
Avrite  of  him  as  the  Principal  of  the  school.  Princeton 
University  was  formerly  the  "  College  of  New  Jersey," 
and  while  that  was  its  proper  title  it  should  have  been 
spoken  of  as  "The  College  of  New  Jersey."  If  the 
name  Princeton  were  necessarily  used,  tlien  it  should 
have  been  written  not  "Princeton  College."  but  "The 
Princeton  college;"  that  is,  the  college  at  Princeton, 
Notice  the  difference  in  the  two  expressions,  "William 
Peim  with  a  few  other  Friends "  and  "  ^^'illiam   Penu 


CAPITAL  LETTERS.  21 

with  a  few  of  his  friends."  Notice  also  the  difference 
between  "  The  Planter's  House,"  a  hotel,  and  "  The 
planter's  house,"  the  residence  of  a  planter. 

The  Lock  Haven  normal  school  is  a  normal  school  at 
Lock  Haven,  but  the  proper  title  is  "The  Central  State 
Normal  School  of  Pennsylvania."  So  also  the  Newark 
academy  is  an  academy  at  Newark  whose  corporate  title 
is  "  The  Academy  of  Newark." 

Names  of  Places. — In  many  cases  words  originally 
beginning  with  snjall  letters  are  now  written  with  capi- 
tals because  they  have  become  names  of  places.  Thus, 
Clark's  ferry  has  been  changed  to  Clark's  Ferry,  Pike's 
peak  to  Pike's  Peak,  Chadd's  ford  to  Chadds  Ford, 
Dobb's  ferry  to  Dobbs  Ferry. 

Names  of  Cities. — In  cases  wdiere  the  word  city  is 
used  with  a  proper  name,  "city  "  should  begin  with  a  capi- 
tal letter  only  when  it  forms  part  of  the  name.  Thus, 
we  write  Jersey  City,  Atlantic  City,  Oil  City,  Mahanoy 
City,  Salt  Lake  City,  because  the  word  city  in  each  case 
is  a  part  of  the  corporate  name ;  but  the  word  city  in 
such  expressions  as  New  York  city,  Philadelphia  cit}^ 
Baltimore  cit,v,  Washington  city,  is  not  written  with  a 
capital  letter,  because  in  none  of  these  does  it  form  a 
part  of  the  coryjorate  name.  We  may  speak  of  Balti- 
more, New  York,  Boston,  etc.,  but  not  of  Jersey,  Atlantic, 
Oil,  or  Salt  Lake  as  cities. 

Added  Names. — When  a  new  proper  name  is  formed 
from  an  old  one  by  the  addition  of  a  word,  the  latter 
becomes  a  part  of  the  coiiiplete  name  and  should  begin 
with  a  capital  letter.  Thus,  Philadelphia,  West  Phila- 
delphia ;  Chicago,  South  Chicago,  Chicago  Junction ; 
Baltimore,  South  Baltimore,  North  Baltimore; 'Chester, 
West  Chester,  South  Chester;  Canada,  Upper  Canada; 
Virsrinia,  West  Virginia. 


22  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Words  and  Phrases. — The  rule  requiring  a  capital 
letter  at  the  hegiiiniug  of  a  sentence  applies  also  to 
■words  or  j)hrases  comprising  an  entire  saying  of  some 
other  person  when  introduced  as  having  been  said  by 
him.  Thus,  "He  shouted,  'Help,  helj) !'"  "Every 
tongue  shall  exclaim  with  heart-felt  joy,  '^^'elcome! 
welcome !  La  Fayette.'  " 

De,  du,  von,  etc. — In  general,  the  best  usage  favors 
beginning  these  words  with  capital  letters,  especially 
where  they  begin  a  heading  or  a  sentence.  Thus,  the 
correct  forms  are  Van  Buren,  Van  Dyck,  Du  Pont, 
O'Reilly.  Bulwer  writes  uncertainly  "  Captain  de  Cax- 
ton  ;"  "  the  old  De  Caxtons,"  seeming  to  indicate  that 
the  absence  of  a  capital  is  correct  when  a  name  or  a 
title  precedes  the  de ;  but  Hood  writes  "  Wolfgang  von 
Dilke  ;"  "  even  Von  Raumer." 

One  Capital  Letter. — Goold  Brown,  in  his  "Gram- 
mar of  Grammars,"  gives  as  one  of  his  rules  on  capital 
letters,  "  Compound  proper  names  wliich  by  analogy  in- 
cline to  a  union  of  their  parts  without  a  hyphen,  should 
be  so  written,  and  have  but  one  ca])ital;"  as,  Eastport, 
Eastville,  Westfield,  Westtown,  Whitehaven,  German- 
town,  Blackrock,  Mountpleasant,  Dekalb,  Newfoundland, 
etc.  He  adds  on  another  page,  "  I  would  observe  that 
perhaps  there  is  nothing  more  puzzling  in  grammar 
than  to  find  out,  amidst  all  the  diversity  of  random 
writing  and  wild  guess-work  in  printing,  the  true  way 
in  wliich  the  comi)Ound  names  of  places  should  be 
written." 

In  writing  the  names  of  places  containing  the  word 
Haven,  usage  is  not  uniform,  but  the  better  plan  is  to 
begin  both  Avords  witli  capital  letters.  Thus,  Lock 
Haven,  New  Haven,  Wliite  Haven.  The  same  is  true 
in  words  of  which  "Mount"  forms  a  part.     The  proper 


CAPITAL  LETTERS.  23 

forms  are  Mount  Holyoke,  Mount  Auburn,  Mount  Pleas- 
ant, Rocky  Mount.  So  also  the  forms  De  Kalb  and  Des 
Moines  are  preferable  to  Dekalb  and  Desmoines. 

Two  Capital  Letters. — Brown  gives  the  followinp;  as 
one  of  the  rules  for  the  use  of  capital  letters:  "The 
compounding  of  a  name  under  one  capital  should  be 
avoided  when  the  general  analogy  of  other  similar 
terms  suggests  a  separation  under  two."  He  then  gives 
the  following  as  examples :  "  Ben  Chat,  Ben  Golich,  Ben 
Nore,"  etc.  Following  this  rule  he  decides  that  the  words 
East,  West,  North,  South,  denoting  relative  position,  and 
the  word  New  when  it  distinguishes  a  place  by  contrast, 
require  generally  a  separation  of  the  words  and  a  capital 
letter  for  each  ;  thus,  East  Greenwich,  West  Greenwich, 
North  Manchester,  South  Manchester,  New  York,  New 
Haven. 

There  are,  however,  many  exceptions  to  this  rule,  as 
in  the  names  Easthampton,  Northhampton,  Westchester, 
Southport. 

It  may  be  said  that  in  names  like  Westchester  and 
Newcastle  usage  varies.  Any  of  these  forms,  New-Castle, 
New  Castle,  Newcastle,  has  authority  for  its  usage. 
Whether  the  words  are  connected  by  a  h3'^phen  or  writ- 
ten separately,  each  part  should  begin  with  a  capital 
letter,  but  only  one  capital  is  used  when  the  words  are 
joined  without  a  hyphen. 

The  conditions  under  which  two  capital  letters  are 
needed  are  as  follows : 

1.  When  an  adjective  is  added  to  a  proper  name,  as 
in  New  York,  New  England,  North  Carolina,  South  Da- 
kota, Great  Pedee,  West  Cleveland,  Lower  Canada. 

2.  When  a  proper  noun  wdth  a  possessive  termination 
is  used  with  a  common  noun  following  it;  as,  Glenn's 
Falls,  Baffin's  Bay,  Martha's  Vineyard,  Booth's  Corner. 


24  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

When  names  of  this  kind  are  united  they  drop  the 
possessive  sign  and  have  Init  one  capital  letter;  as, 
Gravesend,  Crowsnest,  Whitestown,  Scottsboro,  Penns- 
burg. 

3.  When  two  common  nouns  with  a  preposition  be- 
tween them  are  used  as  the  name  of  a  place;  as,  Isle  of 
Shoals,  Lake  of  the  Woods,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Fish- 
kill-on-the-Hudson. 

Complex  Names. — In  names  consisting  of  two  words, 
botli  words  are  written  with  capital  letters  if  the  com- 
mon name  precedes  the  particular ;  thus,  Mount  Wash- 
ington, Lake  Superior,  Cape  May,  Bayou  Teche.  When 
the  common  name  of  the  object,  as  bay,  mountain,  city, 
river,  etc.,  follows  the  particular  name,  usage  varies.  If 
the  name  of  the  object  seems  necessary  to  make  the  ex- 
pression intelligible,  it  is  best  to  begin  both  words  with 
capital  letters.  Thus,  when  we  speak  of  Hudson's  Bay, 
w'e  could  not  ajipropriately  call  it  "the  Hudson's;"  so 
also  of  Long  Island  Sound,  Albemarle  Sound,  Hampton 
Roads,  Cape  Cod  Bay,  Delaware  Bay,  White  Mountains, 
Rocky  Mountains.  Both  capital  letters,  in  each  case, 
seem  to  be  necessary  in  these  words,  especially  in  the 
example  last  named.  Most  mountains  being  rocky  there 
must  be  a  distinction  between  "  the  rock}^  mountains  " 
and  "the  Rocky  Mountains." 

In  complex  names  where  the  first  word  conveys  the 
meaning  intelligibly  witliout  the  use  of  the  other,  the 
capital  letter  in  the  second  word  does  not  seem  neces- 
sary. Thus,  we  may  refer  to  the  Susquehanna  river  as 
"the  Susquehanna,"  to  the  Hudson  river  as  "  the  Hud- 
son," to  the  Mississippi  river  as  "the  Mississippi,"  to  the 
Catskill  mountains  as  "tlie  Catskills,"  and  our  language 
will  in  every  case  be  intelligible.  The  words  mountains, 
rivers,  etc.,  in  such  ex])ressions  need  no  cajiital  letters. 


CAPITAL  LETTERS.  25 

The  same  is  true  of  nearly  all  the  oceans.  We  may- 
write  "  the  Atlantic  ocean  "  or  "  the  Atlantic ;"  "  the  Pa- 
cific ocean  "  or  "  the  Pacific,"  the  distinguishing  name 
of  the  natural  body  of  land  or  water  being  sufficient  to 
make  the  meaning  intelligible.  The  distinction  is  clearly 
shown  in  speaking  of  "  the  Delaware  "  and  "  Delaware 
Bay."  The  first  term  would  not  be  mistaken  for  the 
second.     The  first  refers  only  to  the  river. 

^^'hen  an  adjective  forms  part  of  a  geographical  name 
it  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter;  as,  Green  Moun- 
tains, Green  Bay,  White  Mountains,  Red  River. 

A  good  rule  for  the  use  of  capital  letters  in  complex 
names  is  as  follows:  When  both  names  are  necessarv  to 
express  the  meaning,  each  should  begin  with  a  capital 
letter;  thus,  Green  Mountains,  Casco  Bay,  Bering's 
Strait,  Berkshire  Hills,  Chapel  Hill,  Rocky  Point,  Mam- 
moth Cave,  Block  Island,  Michigan  City,  Fairview  Vil- 
lage, Bunker  Hill,  Central  Park. 

When  only  one  name  is  needed  to  make  the  meaning 
intelligible  only  the  proper  name  of  the  object  should 
begin  with  a  capital  letter;  as,  Missouri  river,  Adiron- 
dack mountains,  Mediterranean  sea.  Pacific  ocean,  Wash- 
ington city. 

Street. — St.  as  the  abbreviation  for  street  is  bv  some 
written  without  a  capital  letter ;  but  there  seems  to  be 
no  good  reason  why  this  should  deviate  from  the  rule. 
Chestnut  St.  is  better  tlian  Chestnut  st.  It  requires  the 
two  terms  to  make  the  name.  It  is  true  that  authority 
may  be  given  for  either  form.  Irving  wrote  the  expres- 
sion, "  Mulberry  street,"  and  Bryant  the  expression, 
"  Grand  Street,"  but  John  Wilson,  an  excellent  author- 
ity on  such  matters,  writes  "  School  Street,"  and  the 
Atlantic  Monthly,  "  Nassau  Street." 

Goold  Brown  seems  to  claim  that  a  h3'phen  should 


26  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

occasionally  be  used  to  make  an  expression  clear,  and 
he  would  write  "  The  New-York  Directory,"  claiming 
that  without  the  hyphen  the  phrase  might  mean  the 
new  directory  for  York:  but  this  position  is  not  tena- 
ble. If  a  new  directory  for  York  were  meant,  the  word 
"  new  "  should  not  begin  with  a  capital  letter,  and  the 
expression  should  read  ''  The  new  York  Director}- ."  The 
"  New  York  Directory  "  is  a  directory  for  New  York, 
either  new  or  old.  If  a  new  one  is  meant  it  may  be 
written  "  The  new  New  York  Directory,"  in  which  the 
second  word  new  is  part  of  the  name  of  the  city.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said  that  unless  there  is  good  reason 
for  using  a  capital  letter  it  is  better  to  use  a  small  letter 
instead.  The  tendency  of  the  uncultured  is  to  use  more 
capitals  than  are  necessary. 

Errors  in  the  use  of  capital  letters  are  frequent  even 
among  reputable  writers.  We  append  some  examples 
to  show  how  even  the  best  informed  may  sometimes 
violate  the  current  rules. 

1.  The  Lord  mayor  of  London's  authority. — Murnnfs  Gram- 
mar. 

2.  We  stayed  a  month  at  lord  Lyttleton's,  the  ornament  of 
bis  country. — Id. 

3.  The  Chestnut  ridge  is  about  twenty-five  miles  west  of  the 
AUeghanies,  and  Laurel  ridge  ten  miles  further  [farther]  west. 
— Balbi's  Geography. 

4.  Staten  Island,  an  island  of  New  York,  nine  miles  below 
New  York  City. —  Universal  Gazetteer. 

5.  He  who  sells  a  christian  sells  the  grace  of  God. — Magazine. 

6.  In  colleges  and  halls  in  ancient  days. 

There  dwelt  a  sage  called  discipline. —  Wayland. 

Goold  Brown  gives  the  following  as  written  incorrectly. 
They  are  taken  from  Williams'  Universal  Gazetteer. 

"JSalt  Creek,  the  name  of  four  towns  in  diifcrent  parts  of 


CAPITAL  LETTERS.  27 

Ohio ;  White  Clay,  a  hundred  in  Newcastle  county,  Delaware ; 
Newcastle,  a  town  and  halfshire  of  Newcastle  county,  Dela- 
ware ;  Sing  Sing,  a  village  in  West  Chester  county,  New  York ; 
White  Water,  a  town  of  Hamilton  county,  Ohio;  Red  Hook,  a 
town  of  Dutchess  county.  New  York,  on  the  Hudson  ;  Kinder- 
hook,  a  town  of  Columbia  county.  New  York ;  Charles  City, 
James  City,  Elizabeth  City,  names  of  counties,  not  cities." 

Mr.  Brown  would  in  each  of  these  names  join  the  two 
words  with  a  hyphen  or  reject  the  second  capital  letter 
and  make  each  name  a  name  of  one  word.  Present 
usage  does  not  sustain  Mr.  Brown. 

Note. — As  regards  the  name  White  Clay,  in  Delaware,  which  is 
the  name  of  both  a  creek  and  a  political  division  known  as  a  hun- 
dred, a  peculiar  local  pronunciation  has  become  established  which 
would  not  be  recognized  elsewhere.  The  name  of  the  stream  is 
known  as  Whitely  Creek,  though  spelled  White  Clay  Creek,  and  of 
the  hundred,  Whitely  Creek  hundred. 


SYLLABICATION. 


Syllabication  is  the  process  of  dividing  words  into 
the  syllables  of  which  they  are  composed. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  principles  to  be 
followed  in  the  division  of  words  into  sj'Ilables : 

1.  Words  should  be  divided  usually  according  to  their 
prefixes,  suffixes,  or  grammatical  endings  if  they  have 
any.     Thus,  reneiv,  larger,  ^cis  dmn,  hurtful,  rocky,  cider. 

2.  Compound  words  should  be  divided  into  the  sim})le 
words  of  which  they  are  composed.  Thus,  mill  ivheel, 
lien  man,  fore  most,  tea  kettle. 

3.  Wlien  the  derivation  and  the  pronunciation  seem 
to  conflict,  the  division  should  be  made  according  to  the 
pronunciation  rather  than  the  derivation.  Tlius,  rep  re- 
aent  a  live  rather  than  representative;  apathy  rather 
than  apathy;  predicate  rather  ihixn  pre  di  cate ;  ther- 
mometer rather  than  ther  mo  me  ter;  as  crihc  rather  than 
a  scribe. 

4.  In  dividing  words  we  should  give  to  every  syllable 
all  the  letters  necessary  to  the  correct  pronunciation  of 
that  syllable.  Thus,  preface  not  preface,  matron  not 
mat  ran,  tioin  He  not  twink  le,  bril  Rant  not  brill  iant. 

5.  A  word  having  two  or  more  syllables  may  be  di- 
vided at  the  end  of  a  line,  but  only  at  the  end  of  a  syl- 
lable. In  applying  this  principle  the  part  on  either  line 
sliould  consist  of  two  or  more  letters,  otlierwise  the  word 
should  not  be  divided. 

It  is  important  also  that  the  word  should  be  so  divided 

28 


SYLLABICATION.  29 

as  to  convey  no  misconception  at  first  glance.  Thus,  a 
word  like  occurrences  is  better  divided  occur  rences  than 
occurrenc  es. 

6.  Two  or  more  words  conveying  a  single  idea  should 
be  united ;  as,  beehive,  sfeaviboat,  cornplanter. 

7.  Consonants  should  be  joined  Avith  the  vowels  Avhose 
sounds  they  modify.  This  is  but  another  form  of  stating 
the  third  principle  named.  Thus,  we  divide  reformation 
into  refo7-  ma  tion  or  re  for  ma  tion  according  to  the  mean- 
ing of  the  word  as  governed  by  the  pronunciation  of  the 
first  syllable. 

8.  Diphthongs  and  triphthongs  are  not  divided.  Thus, 
we  write  buoy  ant,  loy  al,  boy  ish. 

When  two  vowels  come  together  and  do  not  form  a 
diphthong,  they  form  parts  of  separate  s\'llables,  and 
they  may  be  divided ;  as,  a  e  ri  al,  co  op  er  ate,  zo  ol  o  gy, 
etc. 

9.  When  a  single  consonant  comes  between  two  vow- 
els, if  it  does  not  shoi'tcn  the  sound  of  the  first  vowel 
it  goes  to  the  second ;  as,  re  bcl,  ea  sy,  co  zy,  era  zy, 
stu  dent. 

10.  When  a  single  consonant  comes  between  two  vow- 
els it  goes  to  the  first  vowel  if  the  vowel  sound  is  thereby 
shortened  ;  as,  reb  el,  hear  y,  stud  y. 

11.  ^^'hen  a  mute  and  a  liquid  come  between  two 
vowels  the  same  principle  applies;  the  first  consonant 
goes  to  the  first  vowel  if  that  vowel  is  thereby  short- 
ened; as,  cit  ron,  pat  ronize ;  but  when  the  first  vowel  is 
not  shortened  both  consonants  go  to  the  second  vowel ; 
as,  pu  trid,  pa  trol. 

12.  When  a  liquid  and  a  mute  coming  between  two 
vowels  blend  with  the  first  voAvel,  they  are  generally  not 
separated  ;  as,  piost  age,  tcest  em. 

13.  When  a  liquid  and  a  mute  coming  between  two 


30  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

vowels  do  not  blend  with  the  first  vowel  they  are  sep- 
arated, as  in  dan  (jer. 

In  other  cases  two  consonants  occurring  together  are 
usually  separated,  as  in  gen  der,  em  pire,  col  lee  tion. 

Close  attention  to  principle  Seven  would  have  saved 
some  of  our  grammarians  grave  doubts,  one  of  whom  at 
least  seems  to  be  in  a  quandary  as  to  whether  the  words 
river  and  fever  should  be  divided  ri  ver  and  fe  ver  or 
riv  er  and  fev  er. 

It  will  be  noted,  by  this  same  principle,  that  Walker's 
rule  that  a  consonant  coming  between  two  vowels  must 
go  to  the  latter,  is  incorrect;  but  even  principle  Seven, 
while  general  in  its  application,  seems  to  have  some 
exceptions  in  such  words  as  rising,  sizable,  and  dronish. 

The  Use  of  the  Hyphen. 

The  use  of  the  hyphen  is  considered  here  because  of 
its  importance  in  connection  with  syllabication. 

Compound  words,  or  those  made  up  of  two  or  more 
words,  sometimes  require  a  hyphen  to  connect  their  parts. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  principles  gov- 
erning the  use  of  the  hyphen  : 

1.  Permanent  compounds,  such  as  bookseller,  penman, 
and  shoemaker,  are  consolidated ;  while  temporary  com- 
pounds, such  as  good-natured,  laughter-loving,  etc.,  require 
a  hyphen. 

2.  Words  regularly  united,  and  usually  known  as  com- 
}>ound  words,  should  not  be  broken.  Thus,  railroad  is  a 
better  form  than  rail  road,  red-hot  is  better  than  red  hot, 
and  icell-beiug  better  than  well  being. 

3.  Tlie  hyphen  is  used  to  join  the  parts  of  com- 
pound words  that  do  not  sufliciently  coalesce  without 
it ;  as,  dew-drop,  curly-headed,  rosy-clieeked,  forty-Jive,  to- 
night. 


SYLLABICATION.  31 

4.  The  compounding  of  words  is  sometimes  necessary 
to  make  the  meaning  clear.  Thus,  there  is  a  well-defined 
difference  between  a  glass-house,  a  place  for  making  glass, 
and  a  glass  house,  which  is  a  house  made  of  glass.  So, 
also,  the  distinction  between  a  live  oak,  a  living  oak,  and 
a  live-oak,  a  species  of  evergreen,  is  made  clear  by  the 
use  of  the  hyphen.  So,  also,  the  hyphen  makes  clear 
the  distinction  between  a  singing  bird  and  a  singing-bird, 
a  dog^s  ear  and  a  dog^s-ear,  many  colored  goods  and  many- 
colored  goods. 

When  part  of  a  word  is  common  to  two  or  more  con- 
secutive words  it  should  be  left  separate  or  be  used  with 
both  words.  Thus,  we  may  write  of  "  the  minute  and 
the  second  hand  of  a  watch ;"  better,  ''  the  minute-hand 
and  the  second-hand  of  a  watch." 

When  several  compounds  occur  together,  it  is  usually 
best  to  combine  them  in  groups ;  as,  "  Cripple-Creek 
gold-mines ;"  "  Broad-Mountain  coal-fields." 

A  phrase  used  as  an  epithet  or  as  a  modifier  is  com- 
pounded, and  the  hyphen  used ;  as,  a  "  never-to-be-for- 
gotten "  event,  a  "  flower-bedecked  "  meadow,  an  "  I-am- 
surprised  "  expression  of  countenance. 

When  compounds  are  formed  by  the  union  of  a  pos- 
sessive and  the  noun  limited,  if  the  meaning  is  lit- 
eral, both  possessive  sign  and  hyphen  disappear;  thus, 
tradesman,  doomsday,  ratsbane.  When  these  same  terms 
have  not  a  literal  meaning,  as  hound' s-tongue,  beards-foot, 
or  icolfs-hone,  names  of  plants,  both  jjossessive  sign  and 
hyphen  are  retained. 

When  the  compound  term  is  used  as  an  adjective, 
both  the  possessive  sign  and  the  hyphen  are  retained,  as 
in  the  expressions,  "a  camers-hair  shawl,"  " neatVfoot 
oil,"  "a  bird's-e3'e  view." 

A  phrase  having  a  possessive  and  used  as  a  proper 


32  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

name  retains  the  possessive  sign  but  does  not  take  the 
hyphen  ;  as,  Hare's  Corner,  SewelVs  Point. 

Cardinal  numbers  from  twenty  to  one  hundred  are 
written  with  a  hyplien ;  thus,  twenty-one,  sixty-seven, 
eighty-four.  So  also  fractions  ;  as,  two-thirds,  three-fourths, 
nine-tenths. 

A  foreign  plirase  that  is  used  as  an  epithet,  or  whose 
parts  have  so  lost  their  meaning  as  to  become  Anglicized, 
is  written  with  a  hyphen  ;  as,  piano-forte,  billet-doux.  But 
if  the  words  convey  their  original  meaning,  they  remain 
separate  and  no  hyphen  is  used;  thus,  habeas  corpus, 
scire  facias,  casus  belli. 

Prefixes,  or  similar  parts,  are  not  consolidated  with 
the  rest  of  the  word  if  they  stand  before  a  capital  letter, 
and  the  hyphen  is  used  to  separate ;  thus,  pre- Adamite, 
ex- President,  Anglo-Saxon,  anti-Democratic. 

The  hyphen  is  used  also  to  preserve  the  separate 
sense  of  the  parts  of  a  compound  term,  as  in  electro- 
magnetism,  vice-admiral,  hydro-carbon. 

The  words  to-day,  to-night  and  to-morrow  should  alwa3's 
be  written  with  a  livphen. 

Tlic  tendency  to  consolidation  in  compounds  seems  to 
be  well  marked.  Thus,  the  word  schoolhouse  was  orig- 
inally written  as  two  words,  school  house ;  later  the  hy- 
])hen  was  inserted,  making  it  a  single  word,  school-house, 
each  syllable  taking  equal  stress;  later  still  the  accent 
was  shifted  to  the  word  school,  and  the  liyphen  was 
dropped,  and  it  seems  to  be  the  general  rule  in  these 
compounds  that  where  the  accent  shifts  to  a  single  syl- 
la])le  the  hyphen  disappears. 

Rome  amusing  errors,  occasioned  by  the  misuse  of  the 
hyphen,  are  here  presented,  together  with  the  names  of 
the  authors. 

Webster's  Spelling  Book  tells  us  that  "  men  load  hay 


S  YLLA  BIG  A  TIOK  33 

with  a  pitch  fork ;"  also  that  "  it  is  no  more  right  to 
steal  apples  or  water  melons  than  money." 

The  following  are  taken  from  prominent  writers : 

"  She   formed   a  very  singular  and  unheard    of  project." — 
Goldsmith. 

"  I  judge  not  my  ownself,  for  I  know  not  my  ownself." — 
Wayland. 

"  Our  discriminations  of  this  matter  have  been  but  four  footed 
instinct." — Bush,  on  the  Voice. 

"  A  tin  peddler  will  sell  tin  vessels  as  he  travels." — Noah 
Webster. 

"The  town  has  been  for  several  days  well  behaved." — J7ie 
Spectator. 

"  Both  the  ten  and  eight  syllable  verses  are  iambic." — Blair's 
Grammar. 

"Obscured,  where  highest  woods,  impenetrable 
To  star  or  sun-light,  spread  the  umbrage  broad." 

— Milton. 

"He  manylanguaged  nations  has  surveyed."- — Pope. 

"  Bluntwitted  lord,  ignoble  in  manner." — Shakespeare. 

"  You  miglit  have  trussed  him  and  all  his  apparel  into  an 
eel-skin."     [Notice  there  is  but  one  accent.] — Shakespeare. 

"They  may  serve  as  land-marks  to  show  what  lies  in  the 
direct  way  of  truth." — Locke. 

"A  falling  off  at  the  end  always  hurts  greatly." — Blair. 

"The  north  west  winds  from  the  iiigh  lands  produce  cold, 
clear  weather."  —  Webster. 

"  The  soldiers,  with  down  cast  eyes,  seemed  to  beg  for  mercy." 
—  Goldsmith. 

"His  head  was   covered  with  a  coarse  worn  out  piece   of 
cloth." — Goldsmith. 

"  Constantia  saw  that  the  hand  writing  agreed  Avith  the  con- 
tents of  the  letters."— Addiso7i. 

"  Hunting,  and  other  out  door  sports,  are  generally  pursued." 
— Balbrs  Geography. 

"  The  consequences  of  any  action  are  to  be  considered  in  a 
two  fold  light."  —  Wayland. 
3 


34  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

"The  time  when  screech-owls  cry  and  bandogs  howl." — 
Shakespeare. 

"  The  greatest  part  of  such  tables  would  be  of  little  use  to 
English  men." — Friestly^s  Grammar. 

"  They  have  put  me  in  a  silk  night-gown  and  a  gaudy  fool's 
cap." — Addison. 

An  old  song  runs, 

"  We'll  wander  where  the  cows-lips  bloom." 


SPELLING. 


It  is  not  the  province  of  this  hook  to  decide  whether 
the  rules  for  spelling  should  be  taught  in  schools  or  not. 
There  are  many  words,  of  course,  to  which  the  usual 
rules  do  not  apply,  hut  that  is  no  reason  why  we  should 
not  familiarize  ourselves  with  the  rules  so  far  as  they  do 
apply. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  rules  for  spelling: 

1.  Final  E. — Words  ending  in  silent  e  generally  drop 
the  e  on  receiving  an  additional  syllable  beginning  with 
a  vowel;  as,  ice,  icy;  move,  moving ;  advise,  advisable. 

2.  Words  ending  in  silent  e  generally  retain  the  e  on 
receiving  an  additional  syllable  beginning  with  a  conso- 
nant; as,  ivise,  loisely ;  shame,  shameful. 

The  following  are  exceptions  to  the  rule: 
Duly,  truly,  wholly,  awful,  nursling,  wisdom,  judg- 
ment, abridgment,  acknowledgment,  argument,  and  (ac- 
cording to  some  authorities)  lodgment. 

3.  Final  Y. — Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant sound  change  the  y  into  i  before  any  other  termina- 
tion or  additional  syllable  than  's  and  those  beginning 
with  i;  as,  pretty,  prettily. 

The  following  are  exceptions : 

a.  Y  is  changed  to  e  in  beauteous,  duteous,  bounteous, 
piteous,  plenteous. 

b.  In  the  derivatives  of  dry  (except  drier,  driest),  shy, 
sky,  sly,  spry,  wry,  the  y  is  not  changed. 

4.  When  a  vowel  precedes  the  final  y,  or  when  a  suf- 

35 


36  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

fix  is  added  beginning  with  /,  the  y  is  generally  retained 
in  words  receiving  an  additional  ternnnation ;  as,  boy, 
boyish. 

The  following  are  exceptions  to  the  rule: 
Pay,  paid;  lay,  laid,  lain;  day,  daily;  say,  said,  saith ; 
slay,  slain,  together  with   the  compounds   of  tlie   fore- 
going. 

5.  Final  Consonant. — Monos3dlables  and  words  ac- 
cented on  the  last  syllable,  ending  witli  a  single  conso- 
nant preceded  b}-  a  single  vowel,  double  the  final  conso- 
nant on  taking  an  additional  syllal)le  beginning  with  a 
vowel;  as,  run,  running;  begin,  beginning. 

The  following  are  the  exceptions : 

a.  In  the  derivatives  of  the  word  gas.  the  s  is  never 
doubled. 

b.  The  letters  x,  k,  v,  are  never  doubled. 

6.  When  a  Avord  ends  with  two  consonants,  when  the 
last  consonant  is  preceded  by  a  diphthong,  or  when 
the  accent  is  not  on  the  last  syllable,  the  final  con- 
sonant is  not  doubled  on  taking  an  additional  sylla- 
ble beginning  with  a  vowel;  as,  i\ghi,  fghtiiig ;  benefit, 
benefited. 

Crystal,  crystalline  is  an  exception. 

]\Ionosyllal)les  which  end  in  /,  /,  or  s,  preceded  by  a 
single  vowel,  end  in  a  double  consonant;  as,  off,  will, 
glass. 

The  words  clef,  if,  of  are  written  with,  a  single  /,  and 
the  words  as,  gas,  has,  teas,  is,  his,  this,  yes,  us,  thus,  pus, 
with  a  single  s. 

Monosyllables  ending  in  any  other  consonant  than  /, 
/,  or  s  do  not  end  with  a  double  consonant. 

Tlie  following  are  exce})tions :  add,  ebb,  egg,  en;  inn, 
burr,  purr,  butt,  buzz,  fuzz. 


SPELLING.  37 

The  words  in,  bur,  but,  conform  to  the  rule. 

Final  x,  being  equivalent  to  ks,  is  not  doubled,  nor  is 
the  final  consonant  doubled  when  it  follows  a  single 
Yowel  preceded  by  qu,  which  is  really  equivalent  to  kw. 

If  the  derivative  does  not  retain  the  accent  6n  the  last 
syllable  of  the  root-word,  the  final  consonant  is  not  usu- 
ally doubled;  thus,  refer',  reference,  rej'erred' ;  prefer', 
■preference,  preferable,  preferred',  prefer' rible  ;  infer',  in'- 
ference,  in'ferable,  inferred',  infer'rible. 

Letters  doubled  in  the  Latin  are  usually  doubled  in 
the  English  without  regard  to  accent  or  any  other  prin- 
ciple;  i\B,  excel,  excellent,  excellence;  mHame,  iuflammable, 
infiamnudion ;  Britain,  Britannia,  Britannica. 

The  dictionaries  of  Webster  and  Worcester  differ  some- 
what in  the  application  of  Rule  5,  with  reference  to  the 
spelling  of  derivatives  whose  primitives  end  in  I.  Wor- 
cester has  reveller,  traifeller,  etc.,  while  \Vebster  follows  the 
rule,  and  writes  the  words,  leveler,  reveler,  traveler,  etc. 

There  seems  to  be  no  necessity  for  the  principle  quoted 
by  Goold  Brown,  that  the  final  /  of  Avords  ending  in  el 
must  be  doubled  before  another  vowel,  lest  the  power 
of  e  be  mistaken  and  a  syllable  be  lost  in  such  words  as 
traveler,  duelist,  marvelous,  gra,velly.  Only  the  last  of  these 
seems  to  require  the  doubling  ot  the  I  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  word  grave'ly. 

When  hj  follows  I,  as  in  realli/,  orcdly,  ivoolly,  etc.,  there 
is  no  doubling,  but  simply  a  joining  of  the  suffix  ly  to 
the  root.  When,  however,  ly  follows  words  ending  in  II, 
one  of  tlie  I's  is  dropped,  as  in  full, /(t%;  droll,  drolly. 

In  compound  words,  when  three  letters  of  a  kind 
come  together,  one  is  dropped,  as  in  chaffinch,  or  a  hy- 
phen is  used,  as  in  ill-looking,  still-life. 

In  general,  words  ending  with  any  double  letter  retain 
both  letters  when  followed  by  any  termination  not  be- 


:.  1  i 


38  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

ginning  with  the  same  letter,  and  drop  one  of  tlie  letters 
when  followed  by  a  termination  beginning  with  the  same 
letter;  as,  agree,  a^reemcni ;  ivee,  freedom,  freer ;  see,  seeinr/, 
seer ;  shrill,  shrillness,  slir'dhj. 

Some  writers  reject  one  I  when/a/Z  or  ncM  is  added  to 
a  word  ;  as,  skill,  skilfid;  but  Webster  and  others  retain 
the  II,  and  write  wdlfid,  skdlful. 

In  derivatives  from  the  words  bias,  u-orshij),  kidnap, 
some  writers  double  the  final  consonant,  but  the  usual 
custom  is  to  follow  the  rule,  and  write  the  words,  biased, 
uorshiped,  worshiper,  kidnaper. 

According  to  Goold  Brown,  the  final  II  is  peculiar  to 
monosyllables  and  their  compounds,  witli  the  few  deriv- 
atives formed  from  such  roots  by  prefixes;  hence,  all 
other  words  that  end  in  I  should  end  with  a  single  /;  as, 
excel,  repel,  withal,  control,  damsel,  consul,  tranquil. 

The  words  distill  and  instill,  as  given  by  Webster,  may 
be  properly  written  Avith  annul,  until,  as  instil,  distil,  be- 
cause they  are  not  derivatives  of  till. 

Most  writers  agree  that  words  ending  in  ce  or  rje, 
should  retain  the  e  before  able  or  ous,  to  preserve  tlie 
soft  sound  of  c  or  j;  as  in  traceable,  courar/eous,  charge- 
able. 

The  e  is  also  retained  in  singeing,  swingeing,  tingeing, 
to  avoid  confusion  with  the  words  singing,  swinging,  ting- 
ing. 

Judgment,  abridgment,  acknowledgment  are  now  written 
Avithout  the  c,  but  the  older  authorities,  Walker,  Col)b, 
Lowth,  Beattie  and  otliers,  wrote  these  words  with  the  e 
retained. 

When  the  final  e  is  preceded  by  a  vowel  it  is  some- 
times omitted  on  taking  an  additional  syllable ;  as,  due, 
duly;  awe,  awful;  true,  truly;  argue,  argument;  blue, 
bluish;  but  we  wi'itc  blueness,  trueness,  eyeless. 


SPELLING.  39 

While  the  rule  for  the  changing  of  the  final  y  to  i, 
when  preceded  by  a  consonant,  applies  to  derivatives,  it 
does  not  apply  to  compounds.  Thus,  we  have  'penniless 
but  pennyivorth,  merciful  but  mercy-seat. 

Before  ing  and  ish  the  final  y  is  retained  to  prevent 
the  doubling  of  i;  as,  pity,  pitying,  baby,  babyish. 

Words  ending  in  ie,  dropping  the  e,  change  the  i  into 
y  to  prevent  doubling  the  i  on  taking  an  additional  syl- 
lable beginning  with  i;  as,  die,  dying ;  lie,  lying. 

Ize  or  ise? — In  words  ending  in  ize  or  ise,  sounded 
alike,  as  in  size  and  ivise,  z  is  used  in  such  as  are  formed 
essentially  by  means  of  the  termination ;  as,  apologize, 
philosophize,  sympathize,  brutalize;  and  s  is  used  in  such 
as  are  formed  essentially  by  means  of  prefixes ;  as,  rise, 
arise,  advise,  devise,  supervise,  surmise,  comprise,  compromise. 

There  are,  however,  many  exceptions  to  this  rule,  as 
in  the  words  advertise,  catechise,  chastise,  criticise,  exercise, 
exorcise,  merchandise ;  also,  size,  assize,  caj)size,  detonize,  rec- 
ognize. 

If  the  rule  could  be  made  effective  it  would  be  the 
means  of  rejecting  many  variable  spellings. 

Some  words  ending  in  II  drop  one  I  in  composition ; 
as,  all,  always ;  full,  beautiful,  artful;  well,  icelfare. 

Of  words  ending  in  or  or  our,  there  are  more  than 
three  hundred,  but  few  of  them  now,  in  America  at 
least,  retain  the  form  our.  Labour,  behaviour,  honour, 
and  endeavour,  though  occasionally  so  Avritten  in  Eng- 
land, are,  in  the  United  States,  written  with  the  termina- 
tion or  instead  of  our,  and  this  whole  class  of  words  will 
probably  at  no  distant  day  become  uniform  in  the  use 
of  the  termination  or,  just  as  the  k  has  disappeared  from 
such  words  as  musich,  publick,  logich,  etc. 

Able  and  ible. — It  is  frequently  difficult  to  remem- 
ber which  of  these  endings  to  use  in  the  wHting  of 


40  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

certain  words.  Is  it  collectable  or  collectible?  The  only 
safe  guide  seems  to  be  one's  knowledge  of  Latin.  For 
tlie  first  conjugation  the  termination  is  abilis,  from 
which  we  get  able,  as  in  arable.  For  the  second  con- 
jugation the  termination  is  ibilis,  from  which  we  get 
ible,  as  in  docible.  For  the  third  and  the  fourth  conju- 
gation it  is  ibilis,  giving  us  ihlc.  But  to  one  who  has  not 
been  a  student  of  Latin  these  rules  will  be  of  little  use, 
and  yet  nothing  more  satisfactory  can  be  offered. 

The  tendency  at  the  present  time  in  the  case  of  such 
words  as  center,  is  to  use  the  termination  icr  rather  than 
tre,  though  either  is  correct,  and  we  may  write  center  or 
centre,  theater  or  theatre. 

Many  words  of  the  language  have  two  or  more  forms, 
with  authority  for  each;  as,  plough,  ploiv ;  inquiry,  en- 
quiry ;  hight,  height ;  indorse,  endorse ;  meter,  metre. 

Frequently  words  are  written  by  inserting  an  apostro- 
phe for  an  omitted  letter  or  letters.  Thus,  we  have  don''t 
for  do  not,  doesn''t  for  does  not,  isn^t  for  is  not,  ivonH  for  ivoll 
not,  the  old  form  of  will  not,  Pll  fov  I  will,  sha'n''t  for  shall 
not,  ma''am  for  madam,  ^tis  and  ifs  for  it  is,  e'en  for  even, 
gVr  for  ever,  o^cr  for  over,  pr'^ythee  for  I  pray  thee,  o''clock  for 
oj  the  clock,  and  many  others. 

le  or  ei? — In  words  containing  the  comliinations  ie  or 
ei,  c  is  usually  followed  by  ei  and  the  other  consonants 
by  ie,  but  there  are  some  exceptions  to  this  rule;  as, 
seize,  seizure,  leisure,  weird. 

Always  write  c  with  ian,  never  fian. 

A  late  writer  on  orthography  says  there  are  only 
eleven  efies,  derived  from  arefy,  calefy,  humefy,  liquefy, 
madefy,  rarefy,  putrefy,  tabefy,  torrefy,  stupefy,  defy;  thus, 
liquefied,  rarefied,  etc.  All  the  others  are  ifies;  as,  sim- 
plify, simplified,  verify,  verifies,  verified.  Even  of  the 
eleven  efics,  not  more  than  six  are  words  in  common  use. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


The  object  of  this  book  is  not  to  give  a  full  discussion 
of  the  subject  of  English  Grannnar,  but  simj^ly  to  pre- 
sent such  points  in  both  the  etymology  and  the  syntax 
of  our  language  as  are  likely  to  be  interesting  and  useful 
to  writers  and  speakers. 

There  are  many  parts  of  grammar  which,  while  use- 
ful and  interesting  to  the  student  and  the  teacher  of 
English,  are  of  comparatively  little  importance  to  one 
who  desires  simply  to  know  how  to  write  or  speak  the 
language  correctly.  These  it  has  been  thought  best  to 
omit,  as  being  in  a  measure  foreign  to  the  purpose  of 
giving  practical  help  in  the  use  of  good  English. 

The  words  of  our  language  are  divided  according  to 
their  use  into  classes  called  parts  of  speech.  These 
classes  are  known  as  nouns,  pronoims,  adjectives,  verbs, 
adverbs,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  interjections.  Under 
this  classification  adjectives  are  made  to  include  articles, 
and  verbs  to  include  participles. 

Every  word  in  the  English  language  may  be  placed  in 
some  one  of  these  classes,  according  to  the  use  made  of 
the  word  in  expressing  thought. 

Each  of  these  classes  has  its  special  function, — the 
noun  to  represent  names  of  things ;  the  pronoun  to  act 
as  a  substitute  for  a  noun ;  the  verb  to  express  action, 
state  or  being;  the  adjective  to  modify  tlie  meaning  of 
a  noun  or  a  pronoun ;  the  adverb  to  modif}'  the  mean- 
ing of   an   adjective,  a  verb,  or   another   adverb ;    the 

41 


42  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

preposition  to  sliow  relation ;    the  conjunction  to  con- 
nect; and  tlie  interjection  to  ex])ress  emotion. 

Nouns. 

Any  name  of  an  object  is  a  noun.  The  word  object, 
as  here  used,  is  meant  to  include  anything  that  can  be 
thought  of,  whether  perceptible  to  the  senses  or  not. 
For  instance,  the  senses  give  us  no  perception  of  time, 
cause,  space,  and  other  intuitive  ideas,  or  of  spirit,  soul, 
or  the  mind  itself,  but  we  know  that  all  these  things 
exist,  and  their  names  are  therefore  classed  as  nouns. 

The  names  of  signs,  symbols,  words,  etc.,  are  nouns 
when  spoken  of,  as  the  italicised  words  in  the  following 
sentences :  "  ^  is  a  vowel ;"  "  The  is  usually  an  article ;" 
"7  is  a  pronoun ;"  "  +  (phis)  is  the  sign  of  addition.*' 

Any  part  of  a  sentence  when  used  as  a  name  may  be 
called  a  noun,  as  the  phrase  admission  free  in  the  follow- 
ing: ^^  Admission  free  ^^  was  posted  on  the  walls. 

The  most  important  division  of  nouns,  so  far  as  writ- 
ing correctly  is  concerned,  is  that  into  Common  and 
Proper  nouns ;  that  is,  names  representing  classes ;  as, 
boT/,  girl,  ocean,  city;  and  nouns  having  individual  or 
particular  names;  as,  John,  Mary,  Atlantic,  Philadelphia. 

The  chief  thing  to  be  observed  in  the  writing  of  nouns 
is  that  every  proper  noun  should  begin  with  a  capital 
letter. 

When  a  proper  noun  is  made  to  denote  a  class,  as 
"  He  was  the  Cicero  of  his  age  ;"  that  is,  "the  orator  of 
his  age,"  it  becomes  a  common  noun,  but  the  ca])ilal 
letter  is  retained. 

When  a  common  noun  is  used  as  the  name  of  a  par- 
ticular object,  it  becomes  a  pro])er  noun,  and  is  written 
with  a  capital  letter;  as,  "The  Park;"  "Tiie  College;" 
"The  River." 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  43 

When  two  or  more  words  are  used  to  express  but  one 
proper  name,  as  General  Meade,  Williaiii  Henry  Busiiell, 
Queen  Victoria,  Duke  of  Kent,  Chesapeake  Bay,  it  consti- 
tutes but  one  name,  known  as  a  coni])lex  proper  noun, 
and  each  of  its  principal  or  com[)oneiit  parts  begins 
with  a  capital  letter. 

When  a  noun  consists  of  two  or  more  parts  consoli- 
dated or  united  by  a  hyphen,  as  grandfather,  son-in-law, 
it  is  known  as  a  compound-  noun. 

Many  proper  names,  of  which  there  are  said  to  be 
over  70,000  of  places  alone,  had  their  origin  in  common 
names  or  common  adjectives;  thus.  Brook,  Dale,  Hill, 
Woods,  Rivers,  Waiers, — names  of  natural  objects ;  Brown, 
White,  Green,  Black,  Gray, — names  of  colors ;  Smith,  Car- 
penter, Driver,  Seaman,  Sailor,  Fisher,  Bishop, — names  of 
occupations ;  Wolf,  Fox,  Sheep,  Bear,  Beaver,  Hare,— names 
of  animals. 

Frequent  compounds  occur,  as  Whiteman,  Grcenman, 
Greenwood,  Gottlieb  (God  love),  Greenhut  (green  hat),  Pe- 
terson (son  of  Peter),  Johnson,  Jackson,  Willianison. 

Nouns  are  farther  divided  into  collective,  verbal,  and 
abstract. 

The  collective  noun  is  the  name  of  a  grouj)  or  collec- 
tion; thu8,  flock  (of  sheep),  herd  (of  cattle  or  swine), 
drove  (of  horses),  covey  (of  partridges),  audience  (of  hear- 
ers), bevy  (of  girls),  group  (of  paintings),  croivd  (of  peo- 
ple), congregation  (of  peoj^le),  school  (of  learners),  are  all 
collective  nouns. 

NUMBER. 

One  of  the  chief  things  to  be  considered  in  connection 
with  nouns  is  number. 

1.  Usually  nouns  form  their  plurals  by  annexing  .s-  to 
the  singular  when  the  sound  of  that  letter  will  coalesce 


44  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

with  the  last  sound  of  the  singular  form  of  the  word ; 
as,  girl,  girls;  tree,  trees;  hook,  books. 

2.  When  the  sound  of  s  will  not  coulesce  with  the  last 
sound  of  the  singular  form,  as  in  the  word  /ox,  es  is 
added.  Thus,  fox,  foxes ;  churcli,  churcJies;  ash,  ashes; 
bush,  bushes. 

An  attempt  to  pronounce  any  of  the  words  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph  by  adding  s  to  the  singular  form  will 
at  once  show  that  es,  which  has  the  z-sound,  is  preferable 
to  s  as  an  ending. 

The  foregoing  rules  cover  most  cases  for  the  forma- 
tion of  tlie  plural,  but  some  forms  require  further  dis- 
cussion. 

Nouns  Ending-  in  Y. — The  spelling  of  the  plural 
forms  of  nuuns  ending  in  y  follows  the  rules  heretofore 
stated, — words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  single  conso- 
nant, change  the  y  to  ie  and  add  s. 

Formerly  the  spelling  of  such  words  as  lady,  glory, 
etc.,  was  ladle,  glorie,  etc. ;  hence  it  may  be  said  that 
these  words  form  their  plurals  regularly  by  changing 
the  y  to  ie,  and  adding  s. 

Nouns  Ending  in  O. — Nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by 
a  vowel  add  s  only  in  forming  their  plurals ;  as,  cameo, 
cameos  ;  folio,  folios. 

Nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant  usually 
add  es  in  forming  their  plurals;  as,  echo,  echoes;  negro, 
negroes. 

The  following,  however,  are  exceptions  to  the  fore- 
going rule :  The  plural  of  two  is  written  twos,  and  the 
following  are  usually  Avritten  cantos,  halos,  juntos,  quartos, 
solos,  tyros,  duodecimos,  octavos,  pianos,  mementos,  lassos,  pro- 
visos. 

Most  nouns  ending  in  /  or  fe  are  made  plural  by 
changing  the  /  or  fe  to  ves;  as,  life,  lives;  loaf,  loaves. 


e:nglish  grammar.  45 

The  following  nouns  ending  in  /  or/e  form  their  plu- 
rals by  adding  s :  Brief,  chief,  dwarf  fife,  grief,  gulf,  hoof, 
roof,  proof,  reproof  safe,  scarf,  surf,  turf,  strife,  kerchief,  mis- 
chief, handkerchief. 

Nouns  ending  in  ff  form  their  plurals  regularly  by 
adding  s ;  as,  muff,  muffs;  staff,  staffs,  except  where  staff 
means  a  cane,  when  the  plural  is  written  staves  (pro- 
nounced stiivz). 

When  other  parts  of  speech  are  used  as  nouns,  their 
plurals  are  formed  according  to  Rule  1 ;  as,  "  The  ins 
and  outs  of  office ;"  "  The  ifs  and  huts  weakened  his 
argument." 

The  plurals  of  figures,  letters,  and  symbols  are  formed 
by  annexing  an  apostrophe  and  the  letter  s ;  as,  +,  +'s; 
*,  *'s ;  b,  b's ;  6,  6's.  In  such  cases  the  apostrophe  takes 
the  place  of  an  omitted  letter,  as  in  +es,  6es. 

Plurals  of  Proper  Nouns. — Proper  nouns  form  their 
plurals  regularly,  by  the  addition  of  s  or  es;  as,  Caesar, 
the  twelve  Caesars;  Mary,  the  two  Marys ;  Carolina,  the 
Carolinas ;  Dervish,  Dervishes. 

Some  writers,  however,  use  the  forms  the  two  Maries, 
the  Henries. 

Complex  Proper  Names.  —  In  writing  the  plural 
forms  of  complex  proper  names,  s,  the  plural  sign,  is 
added  to  the  last  word  only  ;  as.  The  George  WasJiing- 
tons,  the  Sir  Isaac  Newtons. 

When  a  proper  name  is  preceded  by  a  title,  the  plural 
termination  may  be  annexed  to  either  the  name  or  the 
title,  or  to  both.  The  following  are  examples :  ''  The 
Miss  Bertrams." — Sir  Walter  Scott.  "  The  Miss  Burtons." 
—Bulwer.  "The  two  Miss  \Ne\\em.''— Dickens.  "The 
Miss  Hornecks." — Irving.  "The  Misses  Smith." — Bry- 
ant    "The  Ladies  Butler."— ^SW/i. 

When  a  numeral  or  the  title  Mrs.  precedes  the  proper 


46  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

name,  the  name  only  is  usually  made  plural;  as,  "Tlie 
two  Miss  Scotts ;"  "  The  Mrs.  Welbys ;"  "  The  two  Miss 
Thompsons." 

When  the  title  belongs  to  several  names,  the  title  only 
is  made  plural ;  as,  "  Messrs.  Green  and  Wilson ;"  '"  Messrs. 
Jones,  Adams  and  Smith;"  "Drs.  Brown,  Good,  and  Hen- 
derson." 

When  two  titles  equally  prominent  are  used,  both  are 
made  plural ;  as,  "  The  Lords  Commissioners  North  and 
Russell." 

Proper  names  ending  in  the  syllable  man,  not  being 
compounds  of  the  word  man,  form  their  plurals  regularly 
by  adding  s;  as,  Germans,  Turcomans,  Mussulmans. 

Plurals  of  Corapound  Nouns. — In  compound  nouns 
the  part  wliich  names  the  object  is  made  plural;  as, 
schoolhouse,  schoolhouses ;  tooth-brush,  tvoth-h rushes ;  son- 
in-law,  sons-in-law ;  pear-tree,  ipear-trees ;  hanger-on,  liang- 
ers-on ;  major-general,  major-generals ;  attorney-general, 
attorn  eys-general. 

In  such  words  as  spoonful,  cupful,  cartful,  cartload, 
the  words  Jul  and  load  name  the  object  or  quantity  ; 
hence  the  plurals  are  spoonfuls,  cupfuls,  cartfuls,  cartloads, 
meaning  one  spoon,  cup,  or  cart,  full  a  number  of  times. 

If  more  than  one  sjjoon  or  cup  were  meant,  the  plu- 
rals should  be  written  spoons  full,  cnps  full,  but  not  with 
a  hyphen  or  as  one  word. 

Compound  Nouns  from  Foreign  Languages  form 
their  ])lurals  regularly  by  annexing  the  plural  termina- 
tion to  the  last  term  :  as,  piano-fortes,  ipse-dixits,  scire  fa- 
ciases. 

A  few  com])ound  nouns  have  both  names  made  ])\n- 
ral ;  as,  men-servants,  women-servants,  ■ignes-fatui. 

Some  writers  add  to  their  list  of  doulilc  j)lura]s  the 
word  knlghts-temjjlars,  hui  there  seems  no  good  reason  for 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


47 


departing  from  the  regular  usage  in  the  writing  of  this 
word,  which  is  properly  knights-templar,  as  given  in 
"  Mitchell's  History  of  Freemasonry." 

Foreign  Nouns. — Some  foreign  nouns  adopted  into 
our  language  have  two  forms  for  the  plural,  an  English 
and  a  foreign  one.  The  following  are  some  of  the  most 
familiar  examples : 


English  Plural.                    Foreign  Plural. 

Bandit, 

bandits, 

banditti. 

Beau, 

beaus 

> 

beaux. 

Cherub, 

cherubs. 

cherubim. 

Encomium, 

encomiums. 

encomia. 

Focus, 

focuses. 

foci. 

Fungus, 

funguses. 

fungi. 

Gymnasium 

gymnasiums, 

gymnasia. 

Medium, 

mediums, 

media. 

Seraph, 

seraphs, 

seraphim. 

Stamen, 

stamens. 

stamina. 

Most  foreign  names  retain  their  original 

plurals,  as  ii 

the  following : 

Alumnus, 

alumni. 

Grenus, 

genera. 

Amanuensis, 

amanuenses. 

Hypothesis, 

hypotheses. 

Analysis, 

analyses. 

Larva, 

larvEe. 

Antithesis, 

antitheses. 

Madame, 

mesdames. 

Axis, 

axes. 

Monsieur, 

messieurs. 

Basis, 

bases. 

Nebula, 

nebulae. 

Crisis, 

crises. 

Oasis, 

oases. 

Criterion, 

criteria. 

Parenthesis, 

parentheses 

Datum, 

data. 

Phenomenon 

,     phenomena 

Desideratum, 

desiderata. 

Radius, 

radii. 

Diseresis, 

diaereses. 

Stimulus, 

stimuli. 

Effluvium, 

effluvia. 

Stratum, 

strata. 

Ellipsis, 

ellipses. 

Terminus, 

termini. 

Emphasis, 

emphases. 

Thesis, 

theses. 

Erratum, 

errata. 

Vertebra, 

vertebrae. 

48  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Abstract  Nouns. — The  names  of  metals,  virtues,  vices, 
arts,  and  sciences,  and  the  names  of  things  measured, 
have  no  plural  form ;  as,  wisdom,  gold,  temperance,  draw- 
ing, arithmetic,  wheat,  milk. 

When  different  kinds  of  the  same  substance  are  re- 
ferred to  they  may  be  written  in  the  plural  form  ;  as, 
sugars,  cloths,  etc. 

The  names  of  sciences  ending  in  ics,  as  mathematics, 
physics,  optics,  mechanics,  are  in  the  singular  number. 

Alms  (almesse),  news,  molasses  are  in  the  singular 
number. 

Some  nouns  have  no  singular  form.  The  following 
are  examples :  Archives,  ashes,  belloios,  billiards,  bitters,  cat- 
tle, clothes,  compasses,  goods,  manners,  measles,  morals,  nup- 
tials, nippers,  pincers,  pantaloons,  scissoi^s,  thanks,  tongs, 
tidings,  tiveezers,  trousers,  shears,  scales,  vitals,  wages. 

Home  nouns  are  alike  in  form  in  both  numbers;  as, 
deer,  sheep,  trout,  salmon,  vermin,  apparatus,  series,  species, 
means,  odds,  pains  (efforts),  riches,  etc. 

The  number  of  nouns  which  have  the  same  form  in 
both  num1)ers  can  be  learned  only  by  the  meaning  of 
the  noun  in  the  sentence. 

The  words  head,  brace,  pair,  couple,  dozen,  score,  hun- 
dred, etc.,  having  the  singular  form,  may  be  either  sin- 
gular or  plural  in  meaning;  but  they  may  be  written 
also  with  plural  forms.  When  preceded  by  a  numeral 
they  take  the  singular  form;  as.  Four  pair  of  gloves; 
Three  brace  of  quail;  Five  dozen  eggs.  At  other  times 
they  take  the  plural  form;  as,  "They  came  in  pairs ;^^ 
^^ Hundreds  of  birds  were  in  the  meadow." 

Two-form  Plurals. — Tlie  following  nouns  have  two 
forms  for  the  phiral,  with  difierent  meanings: 

Brother,  brothers  (of  a  family),  brethren  (of  a  society). 

Cow,  cows  (two  or  more),  kine  (the  kindj. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  49 

Die,  dies  (stamps  for  coiniug),  dice  (cubes  for  gaming). 
Fish,  fishes  (individuals),  fish  (species  or  quantity). 
Genius,  geniuses  (men  of  genius),  genii  (spirits). 
Index,  indexes  (tables  of  contents),  indices  (exponents). 
Pea,  }:>€as  (two  or  more),  j^ease  (kind  or  substance). 
Penny,  pennies  (coins),  pence  (amount  of  value). 

Odds  is  either  singular  or  plural. 

Pains  (labor)  is  used  as  either  singular  or  plural,  but 
mostly  in  the  singular;  as,  "No  pains  is  taken." — Po'pe. 
"  Your  pains  are  registered." — Shakespeare. 

Means  (instrument)  is  both  singular  and  plural.  We 
may  say  "  By  this  means,''-  or  "'  By  tlicse  means.^^ 

Oats  is  used  almost  wholly  in  the  plural.  Tlie  sin- 
gular is  usually  expressed  by  "  a  grain  of  oats  "  rather 
than  by  "an  oat." 

Cannon,  shot  and  shell  are  used  in  a  collective 
sense;  as,  "Stormed  at  with  shot  and  shelf'' 

Youth  and  heathen  have  regular  plurals;  as,  "A 
hundred  youths." — Dryden.  "The  ancient  heathens." 
— Addison.  But  both  words  are  often  used  in  a  col- 
lective sense;  as,  "Why  do  the  heathen  rage?" — Bible. 
"They  hate  us  youth." — Shakespeare. 

Trout,  herring-,  shad,  etc.,  are  often  used  in  a  collect- 
ive sense,  and  each  word  requires  a  verb  in  the  plural ; 
as," The  trout  live  in  the  brook."  The  word  herring  has 
also  a  plural  form  ;  as,  "  Myriads  of  herrings." — Baird. 

Sail  when  it  denotes  a  collection  of  ships  is  plural ; 
as,  "  The  fleet  consisted  of  twenty  saiV^ 

Head  is  sometimes  used  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  Thirty 
thousand  head  of  swine." — Addison. 

In  such  expressions  as  "  A  three-cent  piece,"  "  A  five- 
dollar  bill,"  "  A  ten-foot  pole,"  and  the  like,  the  word 
joined  to  the  numeral  by  the  hyphen  loses  its  proper- 
ties as  a  noun,  and  as  a  part  of  the  adjective  retains  its 

4 


50  GOOD  EyOLISH. 

original  form.  An  author  humorously  remarks  that  it 
would  be  quite  as  proper  to  speak  of  "  they-goats  "  for 
the  plural  of  "  he-goat  "  as  to  speak  of  a  ten-feet  pole. 

Fractions. — Since  we  speak  of  two-thirds,  three-fifths, 
etc.,  it  is  best  to  read  such  fractions  as  ^,  ./^^j  three 
twenty-firsts,  five  thirty-fifths. 

Collective  Nouns. — The  number  of  a  collective  noun 
is  determined  by  the  thought  to  be  conveyed  by  the  sen- 
tence in  which  it  is  used. 

A  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of  unity  is  in 
the  singular  number ;  as,  "  The  army  has  left  nothing 
in  its  track  but  a  ruined  country ;"  "  The  committee  has 
read  its  report." 

When  the  idea  conveyed  by  a  collective  noun  is  that  of 
pluralit}'-  or  has  reference  to  the  individuals  included  in 
the  term,  it  is  in  the  plural  number,  and  both  pronoun 
and  verb  agreeing  with  it  should  have  the  plural  form; 
as,  "The  public  are  invited;"  "The  jury  disagreed  in 
their  opinions;"  "The  committee  were  not  unanimous 
in  their  decision." 

In  rare  cases  the  collective  noun  in  a  sentence  may 
be  used  in  both  numbers;  as,  "Each  House  shall  keep 
a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time  to  time  i)ub- 
lish  tlie  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  tJicir  judg- 
ment require  secrecy." — Constitution  oj'  the  United  States. 

The  sentence  from  Irving,  "There  is  a  tribe  in  these 
mountains  who  are  fairer  and  more  intelligent  than  tlie 
other  Indians,"  might  probably  be  improved  by  substi- 
tuting the  words,  "whose  members  are  fairer,"  etc. 

A  possession  or  attribute  common  to  several  objects 
sliould  be  expressed  in  the  singular.  Thus,  "  We  ought 
to  be  content  with  our  lot;'''  "It  is  the  duty  of  all  to 
care  for  their  health,"  not  healths. 

Some  names  of  building  material,  as  brick,  stone,  plank, 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  51 

joist^  are  frequently  used  in  a  jjlural  sense  without  the 
s,  especially  when  referred  to  in  quantity  ;  as,  "  A  pile 
of  brick  ;"  "  A  cartload  of  stone  ;"  "  A  thousand  feet  of 
plank."  When  spoken  of  as  individuals  they  may  take 
the  plural  form;  as,  "Several  bricks;"  "A  half  dozen 
or  more  stones;"  "Two  planks;"  "  Some  joists." 

Whereabouts.— A  common  mistake,  made  es[)ecially 
by  newspajDers,  is  that  of  using  whereabouts  as  a  i>lural 
noun  and  making  it  the  subject  of  a  verb  in  the  plural. 
Thus,  one  paper  says,  "  His  wdiereabouts  are  unknown," 
and  another,  "  His  whereabouts  have  not  yet  been  dis- 
covered." These  sentences  are  of  course  incorrect. 
Whereabouts  means  simply  location  or  staying-place 
and  is  in  the  singular  number. 

GENDER. 

Gender  is  the  distinguishing  of  nouns  with  re-gard  to 
sex.  It  has  been  argued  by  some  that  as  there  are  but 
two  sexes  there  should  be  but  two  genders.  But  sex 
and  gender  are  not  synonymous.  Sex  is  an  attribute 
of  objects ;  gender  is  an  attribute  of  language.  Objects 
are  either  male,  or  female,  or  without  sex.  We  therefore 
have  the  masculine  gender,  denoting  the  names  of  males ; 
the  feminine  gender,  denoting  the  names  of  females ;  and 
the  neuter  gender,  denoting  the  names  of  such  objects  as 
have  no  sex.  The  use  of  these  three  genders  covers  the 
ground  when  the  sex  or  the  absence  of  sex  is  known ; 
but  there  is  a  host  of  names  of  objects  whose  sex  we  do 
not  know  by  the  noun-form,  and  we  therefore  need  an- 
other gender  which  may  be  applied  to  such  words  as 
friends,  parents,  neighbors,  children,  etc. ;  that  is,  a  gender 
which  is  common  to  names  including  both  sexes.  In 
the  sentence,  "  I  expect  some  friends  to  visit  me  to-mor- 
ro^y,"  it  might  be  incorrect  to  speak  of  friends  as  mascu- 


52  GOOD  EXGLISIT. 

line,  because  tliey  might  be  women ;  it  might  be  equally 
incorrect  to  speak  of  them  as  feminine,  for  they  might 
be  male  friends;  indeed,  they  might  consist  of  both 
males  and  females.  To  attribute  either  masculine  or 
feminine,  gender  to  the  Avord  parents,  in  which  both 
sexes  are  represented,  would  be  absurd.  There  is, 
therefore,  a  necessity  for  the  Common  gender,  a  term 
which  is  common  or  applicable  to  both  sexes. 

Some  masculine  nouns  have  no  corresponding  femi- 
nine ;  as,  'printer,  brewer,  hodler,  lawyer.  This  is  true 
probably  because  originally  none  of  these  occupations 
were  pursued  by  women.  For  a  similar  reason,  some 
feminine  nouns,  as  seamstress,  laundress,  have  no  corre- 
sponding masculine  form. 

The  tendency  at  present  is  to  write  the  names  of  occu- 
pations in  a  common  gender,  without  reference  to  sex. 
Thus,  editor  means  a  person  that  edits ;  there  is  no  need 
of  the  word  editress.  We  thus  also  write  the  word  painter 
to  represent  either  sex;  also  teacher,  poet,  doctor,  pJiysi- 
cian,  guide,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  necessity  for  such 
words  as  paintress,  teacher  ess,  poetess,  doctress,  physicianess, 
or  guidess. 

Sometimes  tlie  names  of  animals  are  regarded  as  mas- 
culine or  feminine,  not  because  of  their  sex,  but  from 
their  general  characteristics.  Thus,  "The  lion  does  not 
fear  his  enemy;"  "The  fox  csca])ed  from  his  pursuers;" 
"  The  dove  coos  softly  in  her  nest ;"  "  Every  bee  minds 
her  own  business." — Addison. 

Such  inanimate  objects  as  are  noted  for  firmness, 
power,  boldness,  etc.,  as  sun,  war,  anger,  are  sometimes 
personified  by  the  use  of  pronouns  in  the  masculine 
gender.  Thus,  "The  Sun  rose  in  all  his  glory  and 
power;"  "Then  Anger  rushed,  his  eyes  on  fire."' — Cvl- 
lins. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  53 

Sucli  inanimate  objects  as  are  characterized  by  tbe 
feminine  attributes  of  gentleness,  beauty,  etc.,  are  per- 
sonified by  the  use  of  pronouns  in  the  feminine  gender ; 
as,  "  There  lay  the  City  before  us  in  all  her  beauty ;" 
"  The  Ship  glides  smoothly  along  in  her  course." 

In  writing  of  children  or  the  lower  animals,  sex  is 
usually  disregarded,  and  the  neuter  form  is  used ;  as, 
"The  little  child  prattled  on  till  it  fell  asleep;"  "The 
cat  caught  the  bird  and  ate  it." 

A  collective  noun  is  regarded  as  neuter  when  the  col- 
lection of  objects  is  taken  as  a  unit ;  as,  "  The  army  in 
its  march  destroyed  much  |)roperty." 

When  the  objects  indicated  by  a  collective  noun  are 
considered  separately,  the  gender  must  correspond  to 
the  sex  of  the  individuals ;  as,  "  The  jury  could  not 
agree  in  their  (masculine)  opinions." 

CASE. 

Case  is  that  property  °of  nouns  or  pronouns  which 
denotes  their  relation  to  other  words. 

In  English  there  are  three  cases,  the  Nominative,  the 
Possessive^  and  the  Objective.  Of  these,  the  Nominative 
and  the  01>jective  of  nouns  have  the  same  form.  The 
Possessive  has  a  special  form  to  denote  possession,  the 
singular  differing  fi'om  the  plural. 

The  Possessive  singular  of  nouns  is  usually  formed  by 
annexing  the  apostrophe  and  the  letter  s  ('s)  to  the  nom- 
inative form  ;  as,  man,  man^s. 

When  the  nominative  plural  does  not  end  in  s  the  pos- 
sessive is  formed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  singular 
possessive;  as,  men,  men'' s ;  children,  children'' s. 

When  the  nominative  plural  ends  in  s,  the  possessive 
plural  is  regularly  formed  by  annexing  the  apostrophe 
only ;  as,  boys,  boys'' ;  ladies,  ladies'. 


54  GOOD  ENGLISH 

Inasmuch  as  the  possessive  sign  always  follows  the 
full  form  of  the  nominative,  a  safe  })lan  is  to  write  the 
nominative  form  first,  and  then  convert  it  to  the  pos- 
sessive form  hy  annexing  the  possessive  sign.  Thus, 
^y,fl}fs;  iiies,//e.s';  mouse,  mowsc's;  mice,  wice's;  father- 
in  -1  aw,  father-in-law^ s ;  fath ers-in-la w,  fathers-in-law^ s. 

When  the  form  of  the  noun  is  the  same  in  both  num- 
bers, the  apostrophe  may  for  the  sake  of  distinction  pre- 
cede the  s  in  the  singular,  and  follow  it  in  the  plural ; 
as,  "  A  deer's  hoofs ;"  "  Deers'  hides  for  sale." 

When  the  nominative  form  ends  with  the  sound  of  s 
or  z,  the  s  of  the  possessive  sign  is  sometimes  omitted, 
especially  if  the  next  word  begins  with  the  sound  of  s 
or  z;  as,  "For  conscience'  sake;"  "James'  slate." 

In  general,  the  regular  possessive  sign  should  be  an- 
nexed unless  the  combination  forms  a  disagreeable 
sound,  as  in  the  expression  "  Moses's  laws." 

The  following  seem  particularly  lacking  in  euphony: 
"  Demosthenes's  life." — Blair.  "  Some  of  ^Eschylus's 
and  Euripides's  plays."— i?/a/>.     "  Confucius's  system.'' 

Care  should  be  taken  to  place  the  possessive  sign 
always  at  the  end  of  a  word. 

The  possessive  sign  ('s)  is  an  abbreviation  of  the  old 
English  form  is  or  es.  Thus  in  Ciiaucer  we  find,  "The 
kyngis  crowne,"  "  The  knightes  tale,"  "  In  widdow'es 
habite." 

Syntax  of  Nouns. 

Of  the  use  of  the  nominative  form  as  subject  of  a 
sentence,  little  need  be  said.  Mistakes  are  likely  to 
occur  only  in  answers  to  questions,  as  where  one  calls 
out,  "Who  is  there?"  and  the  answer  is  "Me;"  or 
"Who  l)rought  the  flowers?"  "Me;"  that  is,  "Me 
brou";ht  them." 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  55 

The  possessive  case  is  the  one  in  the  use  of  which 
writers  are  most  liable  to  err. 

Compound  words  are  formed  sometimes  of  a  possess- 
ive and  the  noun  limited.  In  such  cases,  wlien  the  literal 
meaning  is  retained,  the  apostrophe  is  omitted,  as  in 
ratsbane,  tradesman;  but  when  the  meaning  is  figura- 
tive rather  than  literal,  the  apostrophe  is  retained,  as  in 
Jolis-tears,  wulf's-bane,  hound^s-tongue, — names  of  plants. 

When  the  compound  term  is  used  as  an  adjective  the 
possessive  sign  is  also  retained ;  as,  "A  bird's-eye  view;" 
"A  cainel's-hair  shawl.'' 

The  possessive  sign  is  used  with  nouns  only,  never 
with  pronouns,  to  denote  possession.  It's  is  not  the 
possessive  case,  but  a  contraction  of  it  is. 

In  complex  nouns  the  sign  of  the  possessive  should 
be  affixed  to  the  last  word  of  the  name;  as,  *S7/-  ]V(dter 
Scott''s  "Tales  of  a  Grandfather;"  Henry  Ward  Beec]ier''8 
sermons. 

When  an  adjective  belonging  to  a  noun  in  the  pos- 
sessive case  follows  the  noun,  the  possessive  sign  is 
affixed  to  the  adjective,  so  as  to  place  the  sign  imme- 
diately before  the  modified  noun;  as,  "This  is  some- 
body else's  book." 

The  same  principle  applies  in  such  expressions  as 
"Edward  the  Third's  reign."  We  could  not  possibly 
attach  the  possessive  sign  to  the  word  Edward  without 
destroying  the  sense  of  the  expression.  Such  expres- 
sions as  "  Edward  the  Third  "  and  "  someljody  else  "  are 
complex,  and  take  the  possessive  sign  onl}^  at  the  end 
of  the  expression. 

Sometimes  when  the  last  word  of  a  complex  title  is  in 
the  objective  case,  it  is  preferable  to  express  the  idea 
of  possession  by  means  of  a  preposition  and  its  object 
rather  than  by  the  use  of  the  possessive  form.     Thus, 


56  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

tlie  expression  "The  dominion  of  tlie  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many" is  a  better  expression  tlian  is  "Tlie  Emperor  of 
Germany's  dominion." 

Care  must  be  taken  when  two  or  more  connected 
nouns  in  the  possessive  denote  joint  ownership,  to  affix 
the  possessive  sign  to  the  last  noun  only.  Tiius,  "  Fer- 
dinand and  Isabella's  reign,"  meaning  one  reign  ;  "  Por- 
ter and  Johnson's  store,"  meaning  one  store  belonging 
to  the  firm  of  Porter  &  Johnson. 

When  two  or  more  connected  nouns  in  the  possess- 
ive case  denote  separate  ownership,  the  possessive  sign 
should  be  affixed  to  each  noun.  Thus,  "  Porter's  and 
Johnson's  store,"  meaning  Porter's  store  and  Johnson's 
store.  The  same  thought  may  be  expressed  by  placing 
the  word  store  after  the  first  noun ;  thus,  Porter^s  store 
and  Johnson^s,  when,  it  will  be  noticed,  both  possessive 
signs  become  necessary.  The  word  store  retains  the  sin- 
gular form  in  either  expression,  because  it  is  expressed 
after  one  of  the  nouns  and  understood  after  the  other. 
If  the  word  store,  following  either  of  these  possessivcs, 
Avere  written  in  the  plural  form,  it  would  mean  that 
each  person  had  two  or  more  stores.  If  the  thouglit  is 
to  be  expressed  that  Porter  and  Johnson  own  several 
stores  in  partnership,  we  should  Avrite  the  expression, 
Porter  and  Johnson's  stores.  In  fact,  a  single  OAvnersliip, 
whether  by  one  person  alone  or  by  a  number  in  ])artiu'r- 
ship,  requires  a  single  possessive  sign ;  separate  owner- 
ships, separate  signs. 

Wlien  a  noun  in  the  possessive  case  has  one  or  more 
nouns  in  apposition,  tlie  sign  is  affixed  to  tliat  only 
wliieh  immediately  precedes  the  noun  limited  ;  as,  "  Da- 
vid the  psahnist's  reign;"  "The  Avork  Avas  LongfelloAv's, 
autlior  of  EA'angeline."  The  Avord  n:ork  is  here  under- 
stood after  Loiujfelluw^s. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  57 

When  a  noun  is  put  in  apposition  with  a  pronoun  in 
the  possessive  case,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  may  be 
omitted  from  the  noun ;  as,  "  His  success  as  a  teacher  is 
certain;"  that  is,  i?^«s  success  as  a  teacher^s  success  is  cer- 
tain. 

When  the  possessive  Hniits  a  participial  noun  or  a 
participle  used  as  a  noun,  the  possessive  form  should 
be  used  in  the  limiting  word.  Thus,  "  Have  you  any 
objection  to  my  listening?"  "The  objection  to  your 
speaking  was  plausible."  "  Our  being  present  seemed 
to  encourage  the  children.  " 

The  Avord  limited  by  a  possessive  term  is  frequently 
omitted,  especially  in  conversation  ;  as,  "  We  bought  the 
books  at  Lippincott's ;"  that  is,  at  Lippincott's  store. 

If  the  noun  limited  is  not  expressed,  we  may  use 
either  of  two  forms,  "  At  Wilson  the  tailor's,"  or  "  At 
Wilson's,  the  tailor,"  the  second  expression  taking  a 
comma  after  the  possessive  sign  to  indicate  an  omis- 
sion. 

Though  some  writers  place  the  possessive  after  the 
first  of  two  nouns  in  apposition,  as  "  We  bought  the 
goods  at  Smith's,  the  grocer,"  the  best  usage  does  not 
sanction  the  practice.  The  sign  should  be  put  after 
the  second  noun  or  after  both.  Thus,  "We  bought  the 
goods  at  Smith  the  grocer's,"  or  "  We  bought  the  goods 
at  Smith's,  the  grocer's."  The  first  of  these  expressions 
expanded  means  "  at  Smith  the  grocer's  store,"  in  which 
the  possessive  sign  is  placed  at  the  end  of  the  complex 
expression.  The  second  expression  means  "  at  Smith's 
(store)  the  grocer's  store."  Tlio  first  of  these  forms  is 
preferable. 

We  should  not  write,  "We  bought  the  goods  at 
the  store  of  Mr.  Smith's,"  but  "at  the  store  of  Mr. 
Smith." 


58  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Frequently  it  is  better  to  denote  the  idea  of  possession 
by  a  prepositional  phrase  rather  than  by  tlie  use  of  a 
possessive  term.  This  is  particularly  true  of  nouns  in 
the  neuter  gender.  Thus,  "  The  roof  of  the  house  "  or 
"  The  roaring  of  the  wind  "  is  better  than  "  The  house's 
roof"  or  "  The  wind's  roaring."  It  is  true,  we  have  such 
authorized  expressions  as  "a  day's  labor,"  "a  week's 
wages,"  "a  ship's  length,"  "the  law's  delay,"  and  a  few 
others,  but  when  an  expression  is  not  already  recog- 
nized as  current  English,  it  is  best  to  denote  posses- 
sion by  a  prepositional  phrase  as  in  the  case  of  neuter 
nouns. 

Violations  of  the  Correct  Usage  of  the  Possessive  Sign. 

Many  reputaljle  writers,  through  carelessness  or  other- 
wise, occasionally  violate  the  rules  of  syntax. 

The  following  are  illustrations  of  incorrect  usage  of 
the  possessive  form : 

Man  only  of  a  softer  mold  is  made, 
Not  for  his  fellow's  ruin,  but  their  [his]  aid. — Dryden. 
All  liars  shall  have  their  parts  [part]  in  the  burning  lake. — 
Watts. 

And  love's  [love]  and  friendship's  finely  ])ointcd  dart 
Falls  blunted  from  each  indurated  heart. — Goldsniitli. 
A  collection  of  writers  [writers']  faults. — Swift. 
That  is,  as  a  reward  of  some  exertion  on  our  jmrts  [part]. — 
Gurney's  Evidences. 

Such  was  the  occasion  of  Simon  Glover  [Glover's]  presenting 
himself  at  the  house  of  Henry  Gow. — Scott. 

He  pointed  out  the  difficulty  of  counsel  [counsel's]  doing 
public  justice  without  preparation. — Lord  Campbell. 

There  are  all  reasons  for  suspicion  [suspicion's]  falling  on 
him. — Dickens. 

Their  healths  [health]  perhaps  may  be  pretty  well  secured. — 
Lode. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  59 


The  Nominative  Case. 

Tlie  Nominative  Case  is  that  which  is  generally  used  as 
the  subject  of  a  sentence. 

The  subject  may  consist  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun,  or 
any  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  used  as  a  noun. 

A  verb  may  have  several  subjects  in  a  sentence ;  as, 
"  David  and  Henry  have  come." 

In  some  sentences  the  subject  is  not  expressed.  This 
is  usually  the  case  in  commands ;  as,  "  Come ;"  "  Strive 
to  excel."  In  parsing  such  expressions  the  verb  is  said 
to  agree  with  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  understood. 

The  subject  usually  precedes  the  verb,  but  not  always  ; 
it  is  sometimes  placed  after  the  verb  or  after  an  auxil- 
iary;  as,  "Great  is  Diana;"  "Why  do  3'ou  not  come?" 
"Shall  we  reach  the  train  in  time?" 

The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  should  have  the  nomina- 
tive form. 

The  subject  of  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode  takes  the 
objective  form.  We  may  say,  "  I  believe  that  he  is  hon- 
est," or  "  I  believe  him  to  be  honest." 

Violations  of  the  Correct  Usage  of  the  Nominative  Case. 

He  has  dined  here  and  me  [I]  with  him. — Jeffrey. 

He  was  by  nature  less  ready  than  her  [she]. — A.  Trollope. 

She  professed  the  greatest  regard  for  the  lady,  tvhom  [who], 
she  assured  us,  was  an  angel. — Scntt. 

It  is  much  easier  to  respect  a  man  who  has  always  had  our  re- 
spect than  to  respect  a  man  whom  [who]  we  know  was  last  year 
no  better  than  ourselves. — Bosweil. 

He  offered  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  whomsoever  [who- 
soever] might  subdue  the  place. — Irving. 

The  very  two  individuals  whom  [who]  he  thought  were  far 
away. — B.  Disraeli. 


60  GOOD  ENGLISH. 


THE  NOMINATIVE   CASE  INDEPENDENT. 

The  nominative  form  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  used 
not  only  as  the  subject  of  a  sentence,  but  also  in  what 
are  known  as  the  independent  and  the  absolute  con- 
struction. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  said  to  be  used  independ- 
ently— 

1.  When  it  represents  a  person  or  a  thing  addressed; 
as,  "  Boys,  are  you  ready  ?"  "  Gentlemen,  shall  we  have 
order?"     "  Dear  Sir,  I  wish  to  see  you." 

2.  When  it  is  used  in  exclamation  ;  as,  "  Delightful 
task !  to  rear  the  tender  thought ;"  "  Great  Goodness,  I 
did  not  expect  such  a  result!" 

3.  When  by  pleonasm  the  attention  is  dh'ected  to  an 
object  before  anything  is  said  of  that  object;  as,  "Thy 
rod  and  thy  staff,  they  comfort  me." 

Nouns  or  pronouns  used  in  the  three  preceding  ways 
are  said  to  be  in  tlie  nominative  case  independent  by 
address,  by  exclamation,  by  fdeonasm. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  said  to  be  used  absolutely,  or 
to  be  in  the  nominative  case  absolute — 

1.  When  it  is  placed  before  a  participle  as  the  subject 
of  an  abridged  clause ;  as,  "  The  teacher  having  come,  we 
began  work." 

2.  When  it  is  used  after  an  infaiitive  or  a  jiarticiple 
of  a  copulative  verb,  as  part  of  an  abridged  proposition  ; 
as,  "  His  being  a  reliable  man  was  greatly  to  his  advan- 
tage;" "To  be  a  learned  man  was  his  ambition." 

Sometimes  the  nominative  which  should  logically 
precede  the  participle  is  omitted;  as,  "Admitting  your 
argument;"  that  is,  ''We  admitting  your  argument." 

Sometimes  also  in  the  al)solutc  construction,  the 
participle   is    omitted;    as,    "The   war  at  an   end,  the 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  61 

soldiers  returned ;"  that  is,  "  The  war  being  at  an  end," 
etc. 

By  some  grammarians  such  expressions  as  the  titles 
of  books,  the  headings  of  chapters,  the  names  on  signs, 
etc.,  are  considered  as  being  in  the  nominative  case  in- 
dependent by  specification. 

The  Objective  Case. 

There  are  two  circumstances  under  which  a  noun  or  a 
pronoun  may  be  in  the  objective  case. 

The  first  of  these  is  where  it  represents  the  object  of  a 
transitive  verb.  The  objective  case  may  follow  also  the 
participle  of  a  transitive  verb. 

A  verb  or  a  participle  may  have  several  objects ;  as, 
"  He  teaches  both  grammar  and  logic.'''' 

The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  may  be  any  word, 
phrase,  or  clause,  used  as  a  noun;  as,  "The  boy  likes 
study;"  "He  likes  to  study;"  "He  knows  that  whoever 
studies  will  invprove." 

Some  transitive  verbs  have  two  objects,  one  denoting 
some  person  or  thing,  and  the  other  that  which  the  ob- 
ject is  made  to  be  in  fact  or  thought;  as,  "They  made 
him  king;"  "They  crowned  him  king."  Either  of  these 
sentences  may  be  taken  to  mean,  "They  kinged  him." 
Him  is  the  direct  object,  and  hing  is  the  factitive  object, 
by  some  grammarians  called  the  complement. 

Sentences  of  similar  construction  are,  "  They  elected 
him  President;"  "They  chose  Mr.  Smith  captain."  In 
each  case  the  verb  has  the  sense  of  to  make,  and  the  con- 
struction is  called  factitive,  from  facio,  I  make. 

Tlie  principal  verbs  used  in  this  construction  are 
choose,  elect,  make,  ajipoint,  name,  ccdl,  constitute,  render, 
consider,  reckon. 

Some  transitive  verbs  may  be  followed  by  two  objects. 


62  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

the  first  being  the  object  of  a  preposition  understood 
and  the  second  the  object  of  the  verb ;  as,  "  I  gave 
John  some  money.''''  When  the  objects  change  places 
the  preposition  is  expressed ;  as,  "  I  gave  some  money 
to  John." 

The  indirect  object,  or  object  of  the  preposition  under- 
stood, is  by  some  writers  made  the  subject  of  a  verb  in 
the  passive  voice;  as,  "I  was  asked  ni}^  opinion."  The 
propriety  of  this  usage  is,  however,  questionable,  and  it 
ought  to  be  avoided.  A  better  form  for  such  sentences 
is,  "  My  opinion  was  asked."  If  the  sentence  be  correct 
as  given,  there  must  be  an  ellipsis,  the  meaning  being  ''  I 
was  asked  (for)  my  opinion." 

The  Objective  Case  After  a  Preposition. — The  ob- 
jective case  occurs  after  a  preposition  used  to  show  the 
relation  of  the  noun  or  other  objective  following,  to  some 
preceding  word. 

The  objective  case  is  used  after  the  adjective  ivorth, 
and  sometimes  after  like,  near,  nigh,  without  a  preposi- 
tion expressed  ;  as,  "  He  is  like  his  father ;"  "  The  book 
is  worth  a  dollar."  By  some  grammarians  the  object 
here  is  called  an  adverbial  objective ;  others  claim  that 
a  ])reposition  is  understood  after  the  adjective. 

When  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  the  object  of  two  or 
more  prepositions  it  sliould  Ijc  made  to  follow  the  first 
preposition,  and  a  pronoun  representing  it  should  be 
l)laced  after  the  others.  Thus,  "  He  spoke  in  favor  of, 
but  voted  against,  the  measure,"  should  be  "He  s])oke 
in  favor  of  the  measure,  but  voted  against  it." 

The  same  principle  holds  good  where  a  noun  is  used 
as  the  object  of  both  a  verb  and  a  preposition.  Thus, 
"  He  advocated  and  voted  for  the  measure,"  should  be 
"  He  advocated  the  measure  and  voted  for  it." 

Whom  and  which  should  be  made  to  follow  rather  than 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  63 

precede  the  prepositions  of  which  they  are  the  objects. 
Thus,  "  To  whom  did  you  speak  ?"  is  better  than 
"Whom  did  you  speak  to?" 

The  word  home,  and  nouns  denoting  time,  space,  de- 
gree, amount,  direction,  as  years,  feet,  time,  etc.,  are  put 
in  the  objective  case  witliout  a  preposition ;  as,  "  The 
wall  is  four  feet  high ;"  "  We  have  walked  several 
miles;"  "You  will  not  be  a  dollar  richer  by  the 
change ;"  "  I  have  lived  here  ten  years."  In  each  of 
these  sentences  a  preposition  is  implied.  Thus,  "  The 
wall  was  high  by  ten  feet;"  "We  have  walked  (over  the 
space  or  distance  of)  several  miles;"  "You  will  not  be 
richer  (by  or  to  the  value  of )  a  dollar  by  the  change." 

Violations  of  the  Correct  Usage  of  the  Objective  Case. 

The  following  illustrations  show  violations  of  the 
principles  controlling  the  use  of  the  objective  form : 

But  first  I  must  show  u'ho  [whom]  I  mean  by  tlie  govern- 
ment.— Benton. 

To  poor  tve  [us]  thine  enmity  is  most  capital. — Shakespeare. 

He  loves  he  knows  not  who  [whom]. — Addison. 

Let  him  not  boast  that  puts  on  his  armor,  but  he  [him]  that 
takes  it  off. — Barclaij. 

John  Home  Tooke  was  refused  admission  only  because  he 
had  been  in  holy  orders. — Diversions  of  Pur  ley.  (Admission  was 
refused  to  John  Home  Tooke,  etc.) 

Who  [To  whom]  had  been  unexpectedly  left  a  considerable 
sum. — Dr.  Johnson. 

He  [him],  who  had  always  inspired  in  her  a  respect  which 
almost  overcame  her  affection,  she  now  saw  the  object  of  open 
pleasantry. — Miss  Austen. 

Thackeray  having  been  requested  to  write  in  a  lady's 
album,  found  the  following : 


64  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

"Mont  Blanc  is  the  monarch  of  mountains — 
They  crowned  him  long  ago ; 
But  who  they  got  to  put  it  on 
Nobody  seems  to  know." 

Whereupon  Thackeray  added  the  following: 

A  Humble  Suggestion. 
I  know  that  Albert  wrote  in  a  hurry  ; 

To  criticise  I  scarce  presume ; 
But  yet  methinks  that  Lindley  Murray, 
Instead  of  who,  had  written  tvhom. 

W.  M.  Thackeray. 

Wash  ye,  make  ye  [you]  clean. — JBroivn's  Concorda?ice. 

Hodgson's  Errors  in  English,  from  which  we  take  some 
of  the  foregoing,  criticises  the  following : 

God  will  send  no  such  fools  as  I  upon  his  errands. — Kingsley. 

This  sentence  is  correct  as  it  stands,  meaning  "God 
will  send  no  such  fools  as  I  (am)  upon  his  errands." 
The  conjunction  really  connects  sentences  here  instead 
of  the  words  "  fools  "  and  "  I." 

The  following  are  examples  showing  the  misuse  of 
the  preiDositional  objective: 

All  debts  are  cleared  between  you  and  /  [mej. — Shakespeare. 

So  you  must  ride  on  horseback  after  we  [us]. —  Coirper. 
This  life  has  joys  for  you  and  /  [me], 
And  joys  that  riches  ne'er  can  buy. — Bums. 

He  hath  given  away  above  half  his  fortune  to  the  Lord  knows 
who  [whom]. — Fieldimi. 

I  have  plenty  of  victuals,  and  between  you  and  /  [me],  some- 
thing in  a  corner. — Day's  "  Sanford  and  Moion.'^ 

There  are  still  a  few  who,  like  them  and  /  [me],  drink  noth- 
ing but  water. —  Gil  Bias. 

We  are  still  much  at  a  loss  icho  [whom]  civil  power  belongs 
to. — Locke. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  65 

I  cannot  tell  who  [whom]  to  compare  them  to. — Bunyan. 

That  they  should  always  bear  certain  marks  who  [whom]  they 
came  from. — Butler's  Analogi/. 

It  is  in  this  particular  that  the  great  difference  lies  between 
the  laborer  who  moves  to  Yorkshire  and  he  [him]  who  moves 
to  Canada.  —  Westminster  Review. 

Now  he  had  lost  her,  he  wanted  her  back  ;  and  perhaps  every 
one  present,  except  he  [hira],  guessed  why. — Kingsley,  in  "  West- 
ward Ho.'' 

But  if  you  can't  help  it,  u'ho  [whom]  do  you  complain  of? — 
Collier. 

I  see  there  is  some  resemblance  between  this  good  man  and  / 
[me]. — Bunyan. 

The  Case  by  Apposition. 

When  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  is  joined  to  another  for 
the  sake  of  explanation  or  emphasis  it  is  in  tlie  same 
case  as  the  noun  which  it  explains  or  emphasizes. 

This  is  usually  called  the  same  case  by  apposition. 

As  has  been  explained  before,  when  several  nouns 
come  together  to  express  but  one  name,  as  General 
Ulysses  Simpson  Grant,  they  constitute  a  complex 
noun,  and  are  not  in  apposition. 

Sometimes  the  common  noun  is  put  in  apposition 
with  the  proper ;  as,  "  Milton  the  poet ;"  and  sometimes 
the  proper  noun  is  put  in  apposition  with  the  common ; 
as,  "  The  poet  Milton." 

Sometimes  a  noun  is  put  in  apposition  with  a  sen- 
tence; as,  "Always  attend  to  business,  a  good  rule,  was 
his  guiding  motto ;"  and  sometimes  a  sentence  is  put  in 
apposition  with  a  word ;  as,  "  His  motto.  Always  pay  as 
you  go,  is  a  good  rule." 

A  plural  term  is  sometimes  for  the  sake  of  emphasis 
put  in  apposition  with  several  nouns  or  pronouns  pre- 
ceding ;  as,  "  Children,  relatives,  friends, — all  have  de- 
serted me." 

5 


6Q  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Distributive  pronouns  are  sometimes  put  in  apposi- 
tion with  a  plural  noun  or  j^ronoun ;  as,  "  They  called 
eacli  other ;"  that  is,  "  They  each  called  the  other,"  each 
being  in  apposition  with  they. 

As  is  sometimes  followed  by  a  noun  denoting  office 
or  rank,  which  is  in  apposition  with  a  preceding  noun 
or  pronoun.  Thus,  "  His  work  as  a  teacher  is  satisfac- 
tor3%"  in  which  teacher  is  in  the  possessive  case,  being  in 
apposition  with  his. 

Nouns  in  apposition  need  to  agree  in  case,  but  not 
necessarily  in  person,  number,  or  gender. 

When  a  noun  is  in  apposition  with  a  pronoun  in  the 
possessive,  the  possessive  sign  of  the  noun  is  omitted. 
See  the  foregoing  sentence,  "  His  work  as  a  teaclier  is 
satisfactory." 

Violations  of  the  Rule  for  the  Same  Case  by  Apposition. 

Mr.-5.  Bi"0\vnlo\v  had  presumed  to  scold  her,  to  blame  licr,  for 
what  she  was  doing,  she  [herj  whom  nobody  ever  blamed. — 
Mrs.  Oliphant. 

God  forbid  that  John  Hawkins's  wife  should  refuse  lier  last 
penny  to  a  distinguished  mariner,  and  he  [him]  a  gentleman 
born. — Kingsky. 

Amidst  the  tumult  of  the  routed  train 
The  sons  of  false  Antimachus  were  slain  ; 
He  [him],  who  for  bribes  his  faithless  counsel  sold, 
And  voted  Helen's  stay  for  Paris'  gold. — Pope. 
I  saw  him  before  me,  he  [him]  who  had  since  our  first  meet- 
ing continually  contrived  to  pass  some  inap])reciable  slight  on 
me. — Lever. 

It  is  characteristic  of  them  to  appear  to  one  person,  and  he 
[him]  the  most  interested,  the  most  likely  to  be  deluded. — 
W.  J.  Fox :  Works. 

I  don't  forget  the  danger  and  the  woo  of  one  weak  woman, 
and  she  [her]  the  daughter  of  a  man  who  stood  in  this  room. 
— Kingsley. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  67 

To  send  me  away,  and  for  a  whole  year,  too, — /  [me]  who 
had  never  crept  from  under  the  parental  wing — was  a  startling 
idea. — C.  J.  Mathews. 

The  word  came  not  to  Esau,  the  hunter  that  stayed  not  at 
home,  but  to  Jacob,  the  plain  man,  he  [him]  that  dwelt  in  tents. 
— Penn. 

Christ  and  him  [he]  crucified  was  the  Alpha  and  Omega  of 
his  address. — Sermon. 

Same  Case  after  a  Verb. 

Intransitive  verbs  and  verbs  in  tbe  passive  voice  liave 
the  same  case  after  them  as  before  them  when  both 
Avords  mean  the  same  thing. 

The  verbs  usually  placed  between  two  nouns  or  ]5ro- 
nouns  meaning  the  same  thing  are  he,  become,  seem,  ap- 
pear, and  intransitive  verbs  of  motion,  place,  or  position  ; 
also  the  passive  form  of  such  transitive  verbs  as  call, 
choose,  name,  elect,  appoint,  consider,  esteem,  constitute,  and  a 
few  others. 

A  noun  or  a  pronoun  either  preceding  or  following 
one  of  these  verbs  may  be  in  the  same  case  as  a  phrase 
or  a  clause  separated  from  it  by  the  verb.  Thus,  "  It  is 
a  disgrace  that  loe  should  he  compelled  to  remain,^^  or  "  That 
we  should  be  compelled  to  remain  is  a  disgrace."  In  the 
first  of  these  sentences,  the  meaning  may  be  expressed 
by  transferring  the  explanatory  clause  and  putting  it 
directly  in  apposition  with  the  subject;  as,  "It,  that  we 
should  be  compelled  to  remain,  is  a  disgrace." 

The  noun  or  the  pronoun  following  an  intransitive 
infinitive,  and  meaning  the  same  thing  as  the  noun  or 
the  pronoun  preceding  the  verb,  is  usually  in  tlic  ob- 
jective case,  since  the  word  preceding  the  verb,  and 
known  as  the  subject  of  the  infinitive,  is  in  the  objec- 
tive case.     Thus,  "  I  took  him  to  be  the  judge.'''' 

gome  writers  havg  agreed  \\\^\  the  sentence  "  It  is 


68  GOOD  EXaiASlI. 

me  "  is  correct,  because  it  is  cuninion.  Tins  is  not  true. 
It  is  a  direct  violation  of  the  rule,  nor  is  the  expression 
common  among  correct  writers.  If  "  It  is  me  "  Avere 
correct,  then  also  would  "It  is  him,"  "  It  is  her,"  "It  is 
them"  be  correct;  but  they  all  violate  the  well-estab- 
lished principle  that  intransitive  verbs  have  the  same 
case  after  them  as  before  them  when  both  words  mean 
the  same. 

The  noun  or  the  pronoun  after  a  passive  or  an  intran- 
sitive participle  limited  by  a  possessive  is  in  the  nomi- 
native case  independent;  as,  "No  one  thought  of  its 
being  7." 

In  such  expressions  as  "  He  was  taught  grammar " 
there  is  an  ellipsis  of  a  preposition,  as  will  appear 
when  we  substitute  the  word  "  instruct "  for  the  word 
"taught."     Thus,  "He  was  instructed  in  grammar." 

The  subject  and  the  predicate  noun  or  pronoun  need 
agree  in  nothing  except  case.  Thus,  we  may  say  "  It  is 
I,"  "  It  is  he,"  "  It  is  she,"  "  It  is  you,"  "  It  is  they." 

Those  who  would  admit  the  correctness  of  "  It  is  me," 
as  Dean  Alford  does  in  "  The  Queen's  English,"  and 
quote  Shakespeare  as  authority,  in  King  Lear,  where 
the  fool's  expression  is  "  And  yet  I  would  not  be  thee, 
uncle,"  will  on  further  examination  of  the  same  play 
find  Shakespeare  saying  "  Be  as  well-neighbored,  pitied, 
and  relieved  as  thou ;"  "  'Tis  they  have  put  him  on  the 
old  man's  death;"  "  It  is  both  he  and  «/;e;"  "'Tis  Ac;" 
"  'Twas  he-;'  "  Alack,  'tis  he;''  "  O,  this  is  he''  Shall  the 
rule  or  the  exception  govern  ? 

In  practice,  it  matters  not  which  of  the  nouns  precedes 
or  which  follows  if  both  are  in  the  same  case.  Some- 
times both  follow  or  both  precede  tiie  verb.  Thus,  "Am 
I  a  .Jew?"  "Art  thou  Klias?"  "  I  was  eyes  to  tlie  blind, 
and  feet  was  I  to  the  lame."     "  I  know  not  who  she  is." 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  69 

Violations  of  the  Rule  for  the  Same  Case  after  the  Verb. 

He  had  taken  Oliver  to  be  he  [him]. — Dickens. 

If  there  is  any  one  embarrassed  it  will  not  be  me  [I],  and  it 
will  not  be  she.  —  W.  Black. 

It  cannot  be  me  [IJ. — Swift. 

These  are  her  garb,  not  her  [she]. — Hannah  More. 

Although  I  know  it  to  be  he  [h\m\.— Dickens. 

It  is  not  me  [I]  you  are  in  love  with. — Adam  Smith. 

Art  thou  proud  yet?  Ay,  that  I  am,  not  thee  [thou]. — Shake- 
speare. 

Time  was  when  none  could  cry,  "It  was  ??^e"  [I]. — Dryden. 

Notes  on  Nouns. 

Some  discussion  has  arisen  as  to  whetlier  we  shall  say 
"  the  United  States  is  "  or  "  the  United  States  are."  Bry- 
ant in  his  famous  Index  Expurgatorius,  wliich  determined 
the  question  of  usage  for  "  Tlie  New  York  Evening  Post," 
of  which  he  was  editor,  used  the  term  in  the  plural.  The 
Secretaries  of  State  before  the  late  Civil  War  used  the 
expression  in  the  same  wa^^  Many  autliorities  have  ad- 
vocated the  opposite  view,  and  usage  is  still  unsettled. 
A  reasonable  view  seems  to  be  that  where  the  General 
Government  is  meant,  or  where  the  term  expresses  the 
name  of  the  nation,  we  should  consider  the  term  sin- 
gular, and  say  "  The  United  States  is,"  as  we  would  say 
"  Central  America  is,"  or  as  we  would  say  of  any  otlier 
country  made  up  of  individual  states.  If  we  were  to 
refer  to  the  states  as  individuals,  we  should  say  "  the 
United  States  are,"  but  a  doubt  might  arise  as  to  the 
propriety  of  beginning  either  "  united  "  or  "  states  "  with 
a  capital  letter. 

Foreign  Nouns. — Frequently  the  pl.urals  of  foreign 
nouns  are  incorrectly  formed.  The  word  naming  tlie 
graduate  of  an  institution  of  learning  is  a  good  exam- 


70  (JOOD  ENGLISH. 

pie.  The  following  are  the  proper  forms :  The  term 
ajjplied  to  a  male  graduate  is  alumnus  (sing.),  alumni 
(plur.) ;  to  a  female  graduate,  alumna  (sing.),  alumnas 
(plur.)  ;  and  where  an  association  consists  of  both  sexes, 
the  proper  term  is  "  alumni  association." 

It  is  best  in  general  to  use  the  Anglicised  plural  of 
foreign  terms  where  thi^y  have  become  Avords  in  com- 
mon use.  Thus,  animalcules  is  preferable  to  animalcuhe 
except  in  scientific  treatises,  solos  to  soli,  Ignoramuses  to 
ignorami,  funguses  to  fungi,  stamens  to  stamina,  gymna- 
siums to  gymnasia,  focuses  to  foci,  beaas  to  beaux,  and  enco- 
miums to  encomia. 

The  general  tendency  in  writing  the  names  of  profes- 
sions and  other  callings  is  to  abandon  the  use  of  the 
feminine  termination  Avhere  women  occupy  the  same 
plane  and  enjoy  the  same  privileges  as  men ;  hence  we 
have  for  women  as  well  as  men,  doctor,  teacher,  poet,  editor, 
instructor,  merchant,  and  the  like;  but  when  the  calling  is 
essentially  one  belonging  to  the  sex,  a  termination  which 
indicates  the  sex  is  given  to  the  word;  as,  actress,  count- 
ess, duchess,  and  the  like.  In  the  case  of  actress  the 
reason  for  using  the  forms  actor  and  actress  is  probably 
because  the  parts  played  by  the  two  sexes  are  different. 

As  a  rule,  in  fornnng  new  nouns  it  is  l^est  to  take  the 
affix  from  the  same  language  as  the  root-word.  Tliis  is 
sometimes  known  as  "The  law  of  verbal  formation." 
Thus,  in  the  word  telegraph,  we  have  tele  (Gr.),  "afar 
off',"  and  grapheia  (Gr.),  "to  write,"  and  the  word  tele- 
graph, as  also  the  word  telegram,  is  a  legitimate  Avord ; 
but  the  word  cablegram  is  a  hybrid  derived  from  the 
French  and  the  Greek. 

The  suffix  ist,  from  the  Greek,  is  frequently  affixed 
incorrectly  to  an  Anglo-Saxon  root,  producing  as  a  re- 
sult such  monstrous  hybrids  as  wulkist,  talkist,  fightist, 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  71 

and  timist.  Many  of  these  have  dropped  out,  and  we 
have  walker,  talker,  and  the  like,  but  "  timist "  is  still 
used  by  some  to  denote  one  who  keeps  correct  time  in 
his  musical  performances.  The  proper  word  is  time- 
keeper, from  timnian  (A.  S.)  and  ceopan  (A.  S.). 

Many  abbreviations  of  nouns  have  crept  into  modern 
usage,  some  good,  some  bad.  Thus  we  have,  among  the 
forms  which  have  secured  recognition,  ?;a7i  for  "van- 
guard," cah  for  "cabriolet,"  consols  for  "consolidated  an- 
nuities," viob  for  "  mobile  vulgus,^^  proxy  for  "  procuracy," 
chum  for  "  chamber-fellow,"  hack  for  "  hackney-coach." 
But  there  is  no  known  excuse  for  the  use  of  "  co-ed  " 
for  female  student  at  a  co-educational  school,  "  exam  " 
for  exnmination,  "gym"  for  gymnasium,  "pants"  for 
pantaloons,  "  pard  "  for  partner,  "  prex  "  for  president, 
"  gents  "  for  gentlemen,  "  prof"  for  professor,  "  spec"  for 
speculation,  "  prelim  "  for  preliminary  examination,  or 
"  bike  "  for  bicycle. 

Many  of  these  abbreviations  are  the  product  of  the 
playground,  where  they  are  thought  to  savor  of  smart- 
ness, but  none  of  them  should  be  used  unless  recognized 
by  reliable  authority  as  having  established  themselves. 

Adjectives. 

Adjectives  are  used  to  limit  or  qualify  the  meaning 
of  nouns  and  pronouns. 

Two  adjectives  taken  together  as  one  term,  without 
the  use  of  a  hyphen,  may  be  called  a  complex  adjective; 
as,  "A  pa/e  blue  sky ;"  ^^One  hundred  and  twenty  dollars," 

Numerals  below  one  hundred,  when  taken  together, 
are  united  by  a  hyphen;  as,  thirty-tivo,  sixty'three,  ninety- 
six. 

An  adjective  may  modify  a  noun  modified  by  another 


72  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

adjective;  thus,  "A  little  girl;"  "A  beautiful  little  girl." 
In  the  second  example,  "beautiful"  modihes  the  expres- 
sion "  little  girl." 

When  an  adjective  precedes  an  expression  in  which 
a  possessive  limits  another  noun,  the  adjective  limits  the 
noun  in  the  possessive  rather  than  the  noun  limited  by 
the  possessive.  Thus,  in  the  expression,  "  The  old  man's 
coat  was  torn,"  tlie  and  old  modify  mail's. 

An  adjective  usually  precedes  the  noun  but  follows  the 
pronoun  which  it  modifies;  thus,  "He  is  a  wise  man;" 
"He  is  wise."  There  are,  however,  many  exceptions  to 
this  principle,  as  in  the  expression  "The  boy  is  active." 

When  an  adjective  is  used  abstractly  after  a  participle 
or  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode,  as  "  To  be  prudent  is 
sometimes  difficult,"  it  does  not  relate  to  any  noun  or 
pronoun. 

Some  adjectives  merely  limit;  as,  this,  that,  six;  while 
others  qualify. 

Among  the  limiting  adjectives  are  the  articles,  a,  an 
and  the,  numeral  adjectives,  and  pronominal  adjectives. 

Of  the  articles,  a  and  an  always  limit  nouns  in  the 
singular;  a  being  used  before  consonant  sounds  and  a/i 
before  vowel  sounds.  An  attempt  to  ])ronounce  a  com- 
bination where  a  precedes  a  vowel  sound,  as  "a  apj)le," 
"a  orange,"  will  readily  show  why  it  is  more  eupho- 
nious to  use  an  before  vowel  sounds.  Similarly,  an  at- 
tempt to  pronounce  an  before  a  consonant  sound,  as  "  an 
cart,"  "an  book,"  will  show  why  it  is  more  eui)honious 
to  use  a  before  the  sound  of  a  consonant. 

The  may  be  used  before  either  singular  or  jjlural 
nouns. 

Of  tlie  numeral  adjectives,  tiiose  relating  to  number, 
tliere  are  three  kinds:  the  Cardinals,  Avhich  denote  how 
many,  as  one,  two,  three,  etc.;  the  Ordinals,  which  denote 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  73 

what  order,  as  first,  second,  third,  etc. ;  and  the  Midtlpli- 
cative.  which  denote  how  many  fold,  as  double  or  twofold, 
triple  or  threefold,  etc. 

Pronominal  adjectives  are  those  which  may,  without 
the  use  of  the  article,  represent  a  noun  when  understood. 
The  jDronominal  adjectives  are  either  Distributive,  as  each, 
every,  either,  neither, — Demonstrative,  as  this,  that,  these,  those, 
yonder,  former,  latter, — or  Indefinite,  as  some,  one,  any,  such, 
none,  other,  another. 

In  the  case  of  pronominal  adjectives,  when  they  limit 
a  noun  expressed  they  may  be  called  simply  adjectives. 
When  the  noun  is  understood,  as  in  "  This  is  mine,"  the 
pronominal  adjective  may  be  called  a  pronoun. 

Words  derived  from  proper  names,  as  American,  Po- 
lish, Roman,  etc.,  are  known  as  Proper  Adjectives.  Proper 
adjectives  should  begin  with  capital  letters  except  as 
noted  heretofore  in  the  treatment  of  Capital  Letters. 

In  the  comparison  of  adjectives,  when  two  objects  are 
compared,  strict  usage  requires  the  employing  of  the 
comparative  degree  to  express  a  greater  or  a  less  degree 
of  quality ;  as,  wiser,  gentler,  more  beautiful,  less  savage. 

In  the  comparison  of  three  or  more  objects  the  super- 
lative degree  is  required  to  express  the  highest  or  the 
lowest  degree  of  quality ;  as,  ivisest,  most  beautiful,  least 
savage. 

Monosyllables,  and  dissyllables  ending  in  le  or  y,  are 
compared  by  the  use  of  cr  and  est;  as,  simple,  simpler, 
simplest;  spicy,  spicier,  spiciest. 

Other  adjectives  are  usually  compared  by  the  use  of 
more  and  most  or  less  and  least;  as,  beautiful,  more  beau- 
tiful, most  beaidiful ;  dangerous,  less  dangerous,  least  dan- 
gerous. 

Many  ndjectives  are  compared  irregularly ;  as.  good, 
better,  best;    evil,  ivorse,  worst. 


74  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Sonic  adjectives,  as  superior,  inferior,  prejerahle,  previoiis, 
do  not  admit  of  comparison.  Tliis  is  true  also  of  adjec- 
tives denoting  qualities  which  cannot  exist  in  different 
degrees;  as,  round,  squ(tre,  prrpcndiculnr,  etc.,  though  some 
-writers  use  the  comparative  and  the  superlative  forms  of 
these  words  on  the  theory  that  the  words  are  not  used  in 
a  strict  sense.     Thus, 

"The  most  perfect  society." — Everett. 

"Sight  is  the  most  perfect  of  our  senses." — Addison. 

"The  extremest  verge." — ShaJ:espeare. 

Syntax  of  Adjectives. 

When  a  limiting  and  a  qualifying  adjective  modify 
the  same  noun,  the  limiting  adjective  is  placed  first;  as, 
"This  excellent  advice;"  "The  three  brightest  boys." 

When  two  numeral  adjectives  are  thrown  together,  the 
ordinal  should  generally  precede  the  cardinal ;  thus,  "  The 
first  three ;"  "  The  last^six." 

Some  grammarians  object  to  this  form  because  the 
"  first  three  "  imj)lies  a  "  second  three,"  and  in  groups 
of  less  than  six  there  can  be  no  second  three.  This  is 
not  necessarily  true.  While  there  ma}'  not  be  a  "  first 
three"  and  a  "second  three"  in  five,  there  may  be  a 
"first  three"  and  a  " last  three,"  just  as  in  com})etition 
we  speak  always  of  "the  best  three  out  of  five,"  and 
not  the  "  three  best "  out  of  five. 

When  an  ordinal  adjective  limits  a  noun  it  should 
precede  tlie  noun  ;  as,  the  fifth  pxiyc,  the  thirlceuth  lesson, 
the  second  month,  the  cif/hth  day. 

When  a  cardinal  adjective  limits  a  noun  it  sliould  fol- 
low the  noun ;  as,  page  five,  lesson  tliirtcen,  post  sixteen,  part 
one,  not  "  part  first." 

Adjectives  as  well  as  nouns  may  have  the  factitive 
construction,  as  in  tiie  Ibllowing:  "Tiuv  made  the  land 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  75 

rich  ;"  that  is,  "  They  enriched  the  land  ;"  "  They  washed 
their  hands  clean  ;"  that  is,  "They  cleansed  their  hands." 
It  will  be  noticed  that  the  predicate  verb  and  the  facti- 
tive adjective  are  together  equivalent  to  a  single  verb. 

When  the  passive  form  of  the  verb  is  used,  as,  "The 
land  was  made  rich,"  the  adjective  becomes  a  predicate 
adjective. 

Tlie  comparative  degree  presents  the  objects  compared 
as  in  difi'erent  classes  or  divisions,  and  is  followed  by 
than;  as,  "  Bo_ys  are  more  rugged  than  girls." 

The  superlative  degree  presents  the  objects  compared 
as  being  in  the  same  class  or  division,  and  is  followed 
by  o/.  Tb us,  "Samson  was  the  strongest  of  men."  We 
may  say  "  Solomon  was  the  wisest  of  Hebrew  kings," 
but  not  "Solomon  was  wiser  than  any  of  the  Hebrew 
kings,"  for  he  himself  was  one  of  the  Hebrew  kings. 
We  may  say  "  Eve  was  the  fairest  of  women,"  but 
not  "  the  fairest  of  her  daughters  Eve,"  as  given  by 
Milton. 

When  only  two  objects  of  the  same  division  are  com- 
pared the  comparative  may  be  used  like  the  superlative, 
and  is  followed  by  of;  as,  "  Henry  is  the  older  of  the  two 
brothers." 

Some  writers  have  used  the  superlative  in  the  com- 
parison of  two.     Notice  the  following : 

"  Tlie  most  agreeable  of  the  two." — Cowper. 

"The  most  fatigued  of  the  two." — Hood. 

"The  strongest  of  the  two."— Hawthorne. 

"■  Which  of  the  two  was  the  most  active?" — G.  P.  Marsh. 

"  The  least  of  the  two." — Southey. 

"The  eldest  of  the  two  sons." — Thackeray. 

"  Wherever  God  erects  a  house  of  prayer, 
The  devil  always  builds  a  chapel  there ; 
And  'twill  be  found,  upon  examination, 
The  latter  has  the  largest  congregation." — Defoe. 


76  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Double  comparatives  and  double  superlatives  sbould 
not  be  used.  \\'hen  Shakespeare  wrote  the  expression, 
"  the  most  unkindest  cut  of  all,"  he  probably  was  aware 
that  he  was  sacrificing  the  grammar  of  the  sentence  to 
make  the  meter  correct. 

Each,  Every,  Either,  and  Neither  are  in  the  singu- 
lar, and  require  verbs,  nouns,  and  pronouns  connected 
witli  them  to  be  in  the  singular. 

Even  when  two  or  more  singular  subjects  are  con- 
nected by  and,  if  they  are  preceded  by  each,  every,  or  no, 
they  are  considered  separately,  and  require  a  verb  in  the 
singular;  as,  "Each  tree  and  each  shrub  has  its  assigned 
place;"  "Every  boy  and  every  girl  was  ready  for  the 
work;"  "No  chair  and  no  cushion  was  out  of  ])lace." 

When  an  adjective  is  necessarily  plural  the  noun 
which  it  limits  must  take  the  plural  form  ;  as,  six  feet, 
ten  miles,  seventy  dollars;  but  when  tlie  adjective  and 
the  noun  together  form  a  new  adjective  the  noun-part 
of  the  adjective  retains  the  singular  form  ;  as,  "  a  ten- 
foot  pole,"  "a  two-foot  rule,"  "a  three-cent  piece,"  "a 
five-dollar  bill." 

Wiien  quality  is  to  be  expressed,  the  adjective  and 
not  tlie  adverb  should  follow  the  verb.  Thus,  "I  feel 
dck;''  "  I  feel  had;''  "  Eggs  boil  hard;''  "  The  three  stood 
tall  and  silent," — Macaiday;  "  Many  a  nobleman  lies  stark 
and  stiff," — Shakespeare;  "  Time  hangs  heavy  in  the  hall," 
— Scott. 

A  correct  plan  for  determining  whether  tlie  adjective 
or  the  adverb  should  be  used  in  such  sentences  as  the 
foregoing  is  this :  If  anj^  part  of  the  verb  be  or  become 
can  be  substituted  for  the  verb  in  the  sentence,  the  verb 
should  be  followed  by  the  adjective.  Tlius,  "  I  feel  (am) 
wicked  ;"  "I  feel  (am)  bad;"  "She  looks  (is)  beautiful;" 
"The  eggs  boil  (become)  hard;"  "The  apples  taste  (are) 


ENGLISU  GRAMMAR.  77 

sweet;"  "The  marble  looks  (is)  cold;"  "He  felt  (was) 
better;"  "The  child  lay  (was)  motionless." 

When  several  adjectives  limiting  the  same  noun  fol- 
low one  another  and  are  separated  by  a  conjunction,  the 
simplest  is  placed  first.  Thus,  we  say,  "  The  boy  whom 
we  met  is  older  and  more  intelligent  than  his  brothers." 
If  written  in  this  form,  "  The  boy  whom  we  met  is  more 
intelligent  and  older  than  his  brothers,"  the  word  more, 
in  effect,  modifies  not  only  inteUigcnt,  but  also  older; 
thus,  "  more  intelligent  and  more  older." 

Care  must  be  taken,  when  two  adjectives  limiting  the 
same  noun  are  joined  without  the  use  of  a  conjunction, 
that  that  adjective  be  placed  nearest  the  noun  which 
with  the  noun  may  be  modified  by  the  other.  Thus, 
"  A  rugged  little  church  "  rather  than  "  A  little  rugged 
church;"  "A  pretty  little  girl"  rather  than  "A  little 
pretty  girl." 

In  referring  to  distance  farther  should  be  used,  not/«r- 
ther.   Thus,  "  The  sun  is  farther  from  us  than  is  the  moon." 

Farther  is  used  in  the  sense  of  additional.  Thus, 
"Have  you  any  further  remarks  to  make?" 

The  best  authorities  seem  to  agree  that  each  other 
should  be  used  when  reference  is  made  to  two  only, 
and  that  one  another  is  the  proper  term  to  use  when 
reference  is  made  to  more  than  two.  Thus,  "Tiie  boys 
like  each  other;"  that  is,  each  boy  likes  the  other.  The 
number  is  limited  definitely  to  two.  We  may  say  also, 
"The  soldiers  followed  one  another;"  that  is,  one  fol- 
lowed another,  the  number  being  indefinite. 

This  and  its  plural  these  refer  to  wliat  is  near  or  last 
thought  of.  That  and  its  plural  those  refer  to  what  is 
distant  or  last  thought  of.     Thus, 

Farewell  my  friends  !  farewell  my  foes  ! 

My  peace  with  these  [foes],  my  love  with  those  [friends]. 


78  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

This  and  that  modify  words  in  the  singular;  these 
and  those,  words  in  tlie  plural.  It  is  incorrect  to  say 
these  kind  or  those  sort. 

The  words  a  and  the,  though  generally  used  as  arti- 
cles, may  be  used  as  other  parts  of  speed).  Tiius,  when 
a  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  at,  on,  in,  or  other  preposi- 
tions, as  "  He  has  gone  a-fishing,"  it  becomes  a  prep- 
osition. So  also  in  sentences  where  the  is  used  to  modify 
an  adjective  or  an  adverb,  it  is  properly  an  adverb,  as  in 
"  IVie  more  I  sing  the  better  I  like  it;"  "  The  deeper  the  well, 
the  cooler  the  water." 

When  the  article  .a  is  used  before  the  words  dozen,  few, 
hundred,  etc.,  the  combination  of  article  and  adjective,  as 
a  few,  may  be  parsed  as  a  complex  adjective.  Some  gram- 
marians prefer  to  tliink  that  a  })reposition  is  understood  ; 
as,  "A  dozen  (of  j  eggs."  When  millions  and  larger  num- 
bers are  used  the  preposition  is  expressed ;  as,  "  Two  mil- 
lions of  dollars." 

Syntax  op  Articles. 

When  a  common  noun  is  used  in  its  most  extended 
sense,  no  article  is  placed  before  it ;  as,  "  Iron  is  liard  ;" 
"  Glass  is  brittle." 

No  article  is  i)laced  before  a  noun  denoting  a  mere 
title  or  name  used  as  a  name.  Tlius,  "The  cliief  oflicer 
in  some  towns  is  called  mayor;  in  others,  l)urg(>ss;" 
"  His  title  is  cai>tain." 

The  article  should  be  ])laeed  before  an  adjective  used 
as  a  noun  ;  as,  "  None  l)ut  the  brave  deserves  the  fair." 

The  article  should  be  used  l)efore  a  common  noun 
when  tlie  latter  is  used  to  denote  a  ])articular  class ;  as, 
"Tlie  rose  is  a  beautiful  flower." 

\\'hen  several  particulars  are  included  in  a  class,  tlie 
article   must  precede   each   of  tlie  })articulars   if  it  is 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  79 

placed  before  any.  Thus,  "  Nouns  have  three  cases, — 
Nominative,  Possessive  and  Objective,"  or  "  Nouns  have 
three  cases, — the  Nominative,  the  Possessive,  and  the 
Objective." 

The  article  a  is  used  before  the  words  Jew  and  little 
to  denote  some.  Thus,  "  A  few  remained  to  greet  the 
stranger ;"  ''  We  have  a  little  money." 

The  article  a  is  omitted  before  these  adjectives  to 
denote  none,  not  many,  or  not  much.  Thus,  "Few  were 
present  to  listen  to  the  address  ;"  "  But  little  change  has 
been  noticed." 

The  article  is  used  before  each  of  two  names  when 
they  are  compared  if  they  refer  to  separate  persons 
or  things ;  as,  "  The  house  is  more  costly  than  the 
barn." 

The  article  is  omitted  before  the  second  of  two  names 
compared  if  they  refer  to  the  same  person  or  thing; 
as,  "  Longfellow  was  a  more  celebrated  writer  than 
speaker." 

When  several  nouns  have  different  constructions,  or 
when  it  is  desired  to  express  direct  contrast,  or  to  give 
emphasis  or  prominence  to  each  noun,  the  article  should 
be  placed,  before  each.  Thus,  "  The  teacher  and  the  pu- 
pils were  frightened  ;"  ''  The  street  but  not  the  number 
was  given ;"  "  Twenty  thousand  dollars  was  paid  for  a 
store  and  a  farm." 

When  several  adjectives  in  succession  limit  the  same 
noun,  an  article  is  placed  before  the  first  only;  as,  "A 
red,  white,  and  black  cow,"  meaning  one  cow. 

When  several  adjectives  in  succession  limit  a  noun 
denoting  several  objects  of  the  same  name,  the  article 
is  phiced  before  each  adjective;  as,  "A  red  and  a  wliite 
cow,"  meaning  two  cows  of  different  colors. 

Applying  this  principle  to  the  following  sentences, 


80  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

a.  Sing  the  first  and  second  stanza, 

b.  Sing  the  first  and  the  second  stanza, 

c.  Sing  the  first  and  second  stanzas, 

d.  Sing  the  first  and  the  second  stanzas, 

it  is  evident  that  only  the  second  sentence  (6)  is  correct. 

With  reference  to  the  first  sentence,  the  single  article 
indicates  a  single  stanza,  but  a  stanza  cannot  be  first  and 
second  at  the  same  time.  The  same  is  true  of  the  third 
sentence;  the  stanzas  must  be  first  and  second  at  the 
same  time. 

The  fourth  sentence  means  that  the  first  stanzas  shall 
be  sung  and  the  second  stanzas  shall  be  sung,  whereas 
there  is  but  one  of  each.  The  fourth  sentence  could  be 
correct  only  on  the  supposition  that  the  first  stanza  of 
each  of  several  hymns  was  to  be  sung. 

The  second  sentence  is  correct  in  either  of  the  follow- 
ing forms : 

Sing  the  first  and  the  second  stanza. 
Sing  the  first  stanza  and  the  second, 

A  i)rominent  writer  on  Grammar  says  we  may  say, 
"  the  north  pole  and  the  south  pole,  or  the  north  and 
the  south  poles."  The  latter  form  is  incorrect.  In  the 
expression  "  a  red  and  a  white  cow,"  the  word  "  cow  "  is 
understood  after  the  adjective  "red."  So  also  in  tlic 
expression  "  tlic  north  and  the  south  poles,"  the  word 
poles  is  understood  after  the  word  north,  as  indicated 
by  the  presence  of  tlie  article,  and  therefore  the  exj)res- 
sion  means  "  the  north  poles  and  the  south  poles,"  an 
indefinite  number  of  each. 

There  is  objection  also  to  the  statement  of  a  late  writer 
who  argues  that  we  may  say,  "  the  first  and  second  edi- 
tions of  a  book,"  which  means  editions  that  are  at  the 
same  time  both  first  and  second. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  81 

In  the  expressions, 

The  old  and  new  book, 
The  old  and  the  new  book, 
The  old  and  new  books, 
The  old  and  the  new  books, 

the  first  and  the  third  are  incorrect,  and  the  others  cor- 
rect. 

The  proper  expression  for  the  books  of  Scripture  is, 
"The  Old  and  the  New  Testament." 

Tlie  guiding  principle  in  determining  the  use  of  the 
article  in  such  sentences  as  the  foregoing  is,  that  where 
several  adjectives  in  succession  modify  a  noun  which 
refers  to  as  many  distinct  objects  as  there  are  adjectives, 
the  article  must  be  placed  before  each  adjective,  if  the 
noun  is  omitted  after  each  except  the  last ;  thus,  "  The 
first,  the  second,  and  the  third  stanza,"  means  three 
stanzas.  Notice  also  that  the  singular  form  of  the 
noun,  stanza,  is  the  correct  one,  because  it  is  un- 
derstood after  each  of  the  adjectives  Avhere  it  is 
omitted. 

When  the  adjectives  limiting  a  noun  denote  but  one 
object,  the  article  occurs  but  once,  and  that  before 
the  first  adjective ;  as,  "  A  white  and  black  [spotted] 
dog." 

In  general,  as  many  objects  or  groups  of  objects  are 
suggested  in  expressions  like  the  foregoing  as  there  are 
articles.  Thus,  "  A  red,  a  wliite,  and  a  blue  flag  "  (three 
articles,  three  flags).  "A  red,  white,  and  blue  flag  "  (one 
article,  one  flag).  Thus,  also,  "The  first  and  second 
stanza  "  Tone  article,  one  stanza).  But  a  stanza  cannot 
be  first  and  second  at  the  same  time,  therefore  the  ex- 
pression is  incorrect.  The  proper  form  is  "  The  first  and 
the  second  stanza  "  (two  articles,  two  stanzas). 


82  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Sometimes  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  or  through  poetic 
license,  a  writer  departs  from  the  rule ;  as, 

"  A  sadder  and  a  wiser  man 
He  rose  the  morrow  morn." — Coleridge, 

Where  other  limiting  Avords  are  used  with  the  adjec- 
tive, the  same  principle  applies.  Thus,  "  His  first  and 
last  will "  means  one  will.  "  His  first  and  his  last  will " 
(not  wills)  means  two  wills. 

As  to  the  words  naming  streets,  usage  is  not  uniform. 
Shall  we  say  "  Eleventh  and  Chestnut  Streets,"  "  Elev- 
enth Street  and  Chestnut  Street,"  or  "  Eleventh  Street 
and  Chestnut?" 

This  does  not  really  come  under  the  principle  stated. 
Street  is  not  the  noun  modified  by  the  words  eleventh, 
etc.  The  real  names  of  the  streets  are  Eleventh  Street 
and  Chestnut  Street,  just  as  the  name  is  not  Delaware 
but  Delaware  Bay.  Two  words.  Chestnut  and  Street,  are 
necessary  to  form  the  complete  proper  name.  Custom 
seems  to  sanction  Eleventh  and  Chestnut  Streets,  but  the 
form  Eleventh  Street  and  Chestnut  also  is  used,  and  the 
form  "  Chestnut  Street  below  Tenth  "  seems  to  have  no 
exceptions.  Where  a  street  crosses  an  avenue  both  the 
words  street  and  avenue  are  used ;  thus,  "  Broad  Street 
and  Columbia  Avenue."' 

The  definite  article  is  usually  placed  licfore  such  com- 
I)limentary  titles  as  reverend  and  honorable;  as,  ''The 
Reverend  Phillips  Brooks;"  "The  Honorable  William 
E.  Gladstone."  We  may  say  also  "  The  Reverend  Mr. 
Brooks,"  and  "The  Honorable  Mr.  Gladstone." 

Butler's  Grammar  chiiins  that  of  should  not  be  in- 
serted l)etween  both  or  all  and  a  noun  following,  but 
that  it  may  be  inserted  between  both  ov  all  and  a  pro- 
noun following.     Thus,  we  say,  "Both  the  bo3'S  "  and 


EKGLISH  GRAMMAR.  83 

"  All  the  men,"  or  "  Both  of  them,"  "  All  of  them.."  The 
use  of  the  noun  without  the  preposition  is  j^referable. 

The  adjective  some  m^xy  be  written  before  numerals  to 
render  the  number  less  definite ;  as,  "  Some  twenty  j-ears 
ago,  Tom."  • 

Usage  seems  to  differ  with  regard  to  the  use  of  a  or  an 
before  words  beginning  with  h.  All  agree,  however,  tliat 
before  words  beginning  with  A  and  accented  on  the  first 
syllable,  a  is  the  proper  article  to  use;  as,  "A  liistory ;" 
"  A  horseman."  When  the  accent  is  on  the  second  syl- 
lable, in  such  words  as  historical,  either  a  or  an  may  be 
used,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  writer.  Some  gram- 
marians declare  tliat  the  article  in  such  cases  must  be 
an;  as,  "An  historical  account,"  "An  hotel,"  and  yet 
few  people  would  speak  of  "an  hotel."  Usage  is  decid- 
edly in  favor  of  the  form  "  a  hotel,"  and  divided  as  to  "  a 
historical"  or  "an  historical." 

Pronominal  Adjectives. — Every  is  sometimes  used  to 
limit  a  numeral  adjective  and  a  noun  taken  together; 
as,  "  Every  ten  days ;"  "  Every  five  dollars." 

None  may  be  used  in  either  the  singular  or  the  plu- 
ral;  as,  "We  waited  for  a  car,  but  none  came;"  "The 
train  was  wrecked  and  none  of  the  passengers  escaped." 

Every  means  all  considered  separately,  and  requires 
a  verb  or  a  pronoun  in  the  singular;  as,  "Every  good 
boy  is  ready  to  do  his  duty." 

Each  means  all  considered  separately,  and  requires  a 
verb  or  a  pronoun  in  the  singuLar ;  as,  "  Each  girl  is 
ready  to  do  her  share  of  the  w^ork." 

Any  denotes  an  indefinite  object  as  opposed  to  a  par- 
ticular one  or  more;  as,  "  Can  any  one  do  this?"  "  Have 
)'ou  any  money?" 

Either  means  one  or  the  other  of  two,  but  not  both. 
It  implies  a  choice;  as,  "Take  either  of  the  books." 


84  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Neither  means  not  the  one  nor  the  other. 

Many  wlien  followed  by  a  may  be  considered  a  com- 
j)lex  adjective.  It  means  much  the  same  as  every,  but 
does  not  denote  all. 

All  and  "whole  anean  much  the  same,  but  they  are 
not  interchangeable.  We  may  say  "  All  the  world  "  or 
"  The  whole  world,"  and  we  may  say  "  All  the  apples," 
but  not ''  The  whole  apples,"  in  the  same  sense. 

Fewer  and  less  are  sometimes  misapplied.  Fewer 
refers  to  number,  and  Ze-s-i'  to  size.  The  school  officer 
who  said  to  the  teacher,  "  There  are  less  girls  than  boys 
in  your  school,"  probably  told  the  truth,  })ut  it  did  not 
express  the  thought  he  meant  to  convey,  that  there  were 
fewer  girls  than  boys  in  the  school. 

Violations  of  the  Correct  Usage  of  Adjectives. 

Isabella  was  the  cause  of  more  misery  in  botli  countries  than 
any  (other)  woman  who  ever  lived. — History  of  France. 

Neither  of  them  are  [is]  remarkable  for  precision. — Blair. 

Neither  of  which  are  [is]  taken  into  account. — Dean  Alford. 

Mazzini  may  be  said  to  have  done  more  for  the  unity  of  Italy 
than  ajiy  (other)  living  man. — Spectator. 

The  word  party  for  a  man  occurs  in  Shakespeare. — Dean  Al- 
ford.    (Drop  a.) 

The  two  sisters  were  extremely  different,  though  each  had 
their  [her]  admirers. — Scott. 

Never  did  a  set  of  rascals  travel  furUier  [farther]  to  find  a 
gallows.  —  W.  Irving. 

A  proper  fraction  is  less  than  one,  because  it  expresses  less 
[fewer]  parts  than  it  takes  to  make  a  unit. — D.  P.  Colburn. 

We  may  consider  the  whole  space  of  an  [a]  hundred  years  as 
present. — Beattie. 

Which  created  a  great  disi)ute  between  the  young  and  (the) 
old  men. —  Goldsmith. 

It  was  read  by  tlie  high  and  the  low,  by  the  rich  and  (the) 
illiterate. — Dr.  Johnson. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  85 

So  difficult  is  it  to  separate  these  two  things  from  one  another 
[each  other]. — Blair's  Rhetoric. 

They  stand  now  on  one  foot,  tlien  on  another  [the  other]. — ■ 
Walker's  Particles. 

Tlie  head  of  it  would  be  an  [a]  universal  monarch. — Butler's 
Analogy. 

Scripture,  n.,  appropriately  and  by  way  of  distinction,  the  books 
of  the  Old  and  (the)  New  Testament,  the  Bible. — Dictionary. 

In  two  separate  volumes,  entitled  the  Old  and  (the)  New  Tes- 
tament. —  Wayland. 

The  creed  of  Zoroaster  .  .  ,  ,  supposes  the  co-existence  of  a 
benevolent  and  (a)  malevolent  principle,  which  contend  together 
without  either  [cither's]  being  able  decisively  to  prevail  over  his 
antagonist. — Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Here  they  confound  the  material  and  (the)  formal  object  of 
faith. — 3Iaturin's  Sermons. 

Mr.  Stanley  was  the  only  one  of  his  predecessors  who  slaugh- 
tered the  natives  of  the  region  he  passed  through. — Loyidon  E.x- 
aminer.     (Omit  "of  his  predecessors.") 

A  close  prisoner  in  a  room  twenty  foot  [feet]  square. — Locke. 

A  Philosophical  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  our  Ideas  of  the 
Sublime  and  (the)  Beautiful. — Burlr. 

There  are  no  less  [fewer]  than  five  words  with  any  of  which 
the  sentence  might  have  terminated. — CampbeWs  Rhetoric. 

The  letters  published  after  C.  Lamb's  death  and  that  of  his 
sister,  by  Mr.  Talfourd,  make  up  a  volume  of  more  interest  than 
any  (other)  books  of  human  composition. — Leslie. 

To  the  antiquary  and  (the)  artist  those  columns  are  a  source 
of  inexhaustible  observations  and  designs. — Byron. 

Her  two  brothers  were  one  after  another  [the  other]  turned 
into  stone. — Art  of  Thinking. 

Memory  and  forecaste  just  returns  engage, 

This  [that]  pointing  back  to  youth,  that  [this]  onto  age. — I^pe. 

For  beast  and  bird  ; 
These  [those]  to  their  grassy  couch,  those  [these]  to  their 

nests  repair. — Milton. 
The  landlord  was  thought  to  see  further  [farther]  and  deeper 
into  things  than  any  (other)  man  in  the  parish. — Fielding, 


86  good  english. 

Pronouns. 

A  pronoun  may  represent  a  noini  or  any  phrase  or 
clause  used  as  a  noun. 

A  pronoun  agrees  witli  its  antecedent  in  person, 
number  and  gender ;  but  the  case  is  determined  by 
the  relation  of  the  pronoun  to  other  words  in  the  sen- 
tence. 

The  pronoun  thou  is  now  rarely  used  except  in  the 
solemn  style.  You  is  used  instead  in  both  the  singular 
and  the  plural,  but  the  verb  which  agrees  with  it  is 
always  of  the  plural  form. 

Some  difficulty  is  experienced  in  expression  because 
the  language  has  no  singular  pronoun  in  the  third  per- 
son to  represent  males  and  females.  When  both  sexes 
are  represented,  the  masculine  form,  he,  is  used  by  com- 
mon consent;  as,  "jfZe  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him 
hear." 

Some  of  the  personal  pronouns  have  two  forms  for  tlie 
possessive,  one  of  which,  viy,  our,  thy,  your,  her,  their,  is 
used  when  the  noun  is  expressed;  as,  my  book,  her  pen- 
cil ;  and  the  other,  mine,  ours,  thine,  yours,  hers,  theirs,  when 
the  noun  is  understood  or  implied  ;  as,  The  book  is  mine ; 
The  pencil  is  hers. 

In  parsing  this  latter  form  the  simplest  plan  is  to 
call  the  word  a  personal  pronoun,  having  the  possessive 
form,  and  then  determine  the  case  by  the  use  of  the 
word  in  the  sentence.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "The 
book  is  mine,"  mine  is  a  personal  pronoun,  having  the 
possessive  form.  It  is  in  the  first  person,  singular  num- 
ber, and  in  the  nominative  case  after  is.  The  word  mine 
here  means  my  hook. 

Care  must  be  taken  never  to  write  tlic  possessive  form 
of  pronouns  with  an  apostrophe. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  87 

Syntax  of  Personal  Pronouns. 

When  the  antecedent  of  a  personal  pronoun  is  a  col- 
lective noun  conveying  the  idea  of  unit}^  the  pronoun 
agrees  with  it  in  the  third  person,  singular  number, 
neuter  gender.  Thus,  "  The  army  marched  onward  in 
its  course." 

When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun  conveying 
the  idea  of  plurality,  the  pronoun  agrees  with  it  in  the 
plural  number,  the  gender  corresponding  to  that  of  the 
individuals  in  the  collection;  as,  "The  jury  did  not 
agree  in  their  opinions." 

When  a  pronoun  is  used  to  represent  two  or  more 
nouns  connected  by  and,  but  meaning  different  things, 
the  plural  form  must  be  used ;  as,  "  Both  the  boy  and 
the  girl  spoke  to  tlicir  father." 

When  a  pronoun  is  used  to  represent  two  or  more 
nouns  in  the  singular,  connected  by  and,  and  meaning 
the  same  thing,  the  singular  form  of  the  pronoun  must 
be  used ;  as,  "  Our  teacher  and  protector  has  her  home 
in  the  village." 

When  two  or  more  nouns  in  the  singular,  connected 
by  and,  are  preceded  by  each,  every,  or  no,  the  pronoun 
which  represents  them  is  in  the  singular  number;  as, 
"Every  bush  and  every  tree  is  putting  forth  its  leaves." 

When  two  or  more  nouns  in  the  singular,  connected 
by  or  or  nor,  are  represented  by  a  pronoun,  it  agrees 
with  them  separately  in  the  singular  number.  Thus, 
"Neither  Henry  nor  William  has  found  his  book." 

When  two  or  more  nouns  of  different  numbers  are 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  the  pronoun  should  be  made 
plural,  and  the  plural  noun  should  be  placed  nearest  to 
it.  Thus,  "  Neitlier  the  teacher  nor  the  pupils  felt  that 
they  had  cause  to  regret  tlieir  action." 


88  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

^\^heIl  two  or  more  nouns  are  connected  by  as  well  as, 
and  also,  but  not,  or  similar  connectives,  they  belong  to 
different  propositions,  and  the  j)ronoun  reijresents  the 
first  noun  only.  Thus,  "The  boy  as  well  as  his  father 
believed  that  he  would  succeed." 

When  two  or  more  antecedents,  connected  by  and,  are 
of  different  persons,  the  pronoun  which  represents  them 
is  of  the  first  person  if  either  of  the  antecedents  is  of 
the  first  person.  Thus,  "  William  and  I  are  anxious  to 
please  our  friends." 

If  none  of  the  antecedents  is  of  the  first  person,  the 
pronoun  is  of  the  second  person ;  as,  "  Vou  and  your 
brother  must  be  kind  to  your  sisters." 

When  using  the  pronoun  of  the  second  person,  sin- 
gular, the  same  form  must  be  preserved  throughout. 
Thus,  "Thou  and  th}^  sons  shall  bear  the  burden  of 
thy  sins." 

When  several  personal  pronouns  in  the  singular  num- 
ber are  used  together,  the  second  person  is  placed  before 
the  others,  and  the  third  is  placed  before  the  first.  Thus, 
"You  and  I,"  "  He  and  I,"  "  You  and  he." 

When  several  personal  pronouns  in  the  plural  number 
are  used  together,  we  is  usually  placed  first,  you  second, 
and  they  third ;  thus,  "  We  and  you,"  "  We  and  they," 
"You  and  they." 

When  the  use  of  a  pronoun  causes  ambiguity,  the 
noun  should  be  repeated.  Thus,  the  sentence,  "The 
farmer  told  his  neighbor  that  his  cows  were  in  his 
corn,"  may  mean  four  things, — 

a.  The  farmer's  cows  were  in  the  farmer's  corn. 

b.  The  farmer's  cows  were  in  his  neijrhbor's  corn. 

c.  The  neighbor's  cows  were  in  the  farmer's  corn. 

d.  The  neighbor's  cows  were  in  the  neighbor's  corn. 

"We,  though  jjlural,  is  sometimes  used  by  editors  and 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  89 

others  to  denote  but  one.  Our  is  used  in  the  same  way. 
Thus,  "  We  give  this  as  our  opinion." 

You  is  often  used  to  denote  but  one ;  but  the  verb 
agreeing  with  it  must  have  the  plural  form. 

When  neuter  nouns  are  personified  they  are  repre- 
sented by  pronouns  in  the  masculine  or  the  feminine 
gender.   Thus,  "Grim  Darkness  furls  his  leaden  shroud." 

Such  collectives  as  dozen,  many,  few,  score,  preceded  by 
a,  are  represented  by  pronouns  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  A 
few  of  them  were  present." 

Antecedents  in  the  singular  number  but  of  different 
persons  cannot  be  represented  by  a  single  pronoun.  A 
separate  pronoun  must  be  used  to  represent  each  ante- 
cedent. Thus,  "The  boy  found  his  pencil,  but  his  sister 
did  not  find  hers." 

Violations  in  the  TTsage  of  Pronouns. 

Every  oue  in  the  family  should  know  their  [liis]  duty. — Penn. 

His  form  had  not  yet  lost  all  lier  [its]  original  brightness. — 
Milton. 

I  shall  not  learn  my  duty  from  such  as  tltee  [thou]. — Fielding. 

But  he  must  be  stronger  than  thee  [thou]. — Southey. 

No  one  will  answer  as  if  I  were  their  [his]  friend  or  compan- 
ion.— Steele,  iii  Spectator. 

She  was  no  better  bred  nor  wiser  than  you  or  me  [I]. —  Thack- 
eray. 

If  the  part  deserve  any  comment,  every  considering  Chris- 
tian will  make  it  themselves  [himself]  as  they  go  [he  goes]. — 
Defoe. 

Now  these  systems,  so  far  from  having  any  tendency  to  make 
men  better,  have  manifest  tendency  to  make  him  [them]  worse. 
—  Wayland. 

Every  nation  have  their  [has  its]  refinement. — Sterne. 

Neither  gave  vent  to  their  [his]  feelings  in  words. — Scott. 

Everybody  will  become  of  use  in  their  [his]  own  fittest  way. 
— Ruskiii. 


90  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

The  tongue  is  like  a  race-horse,  which  runs  the  faster  the  less 
weight  if  [hej  carries. — Addison. 

Nobody  knows  what  it  is  to  lose  a  friend  till  they  have  [he 
has]  lost  one. — Fielding. 

I  do  not  mean  that  I  think  any  one  to  blame  for  taking  care 
of  their  [his]  health. — Addison. 

"Kose  Satterly,  the  mayor's  daughter?" — "That's  her''  [she]. 
— Fielding. 

Relative  and  Interrogative  Pronouns. 

A  Relative  Pronoun  is  one  which  relates  to  a  preced- 
ing word,  phrase,  or  clause,  called  its  antecedent,  and 
unites  with  it  a  subordinate  clause. 

The  relative  pronouns  are  icho,  ivhich,  icJiat,  and  ilidt. 
Some  grammarians  consider  as  a  relative  pronoun  when 
it  follows  such,  same,  or  many ;  as,  "We  give  you  such  as 
we  have."  Others  claim  that  there  is  an  ellipsis  in  such 
expressions,  the  relative  pronoun  being  understood,  the 
foregoing  sentence  meaning,  "  We  give  you  such  as 
(those  are  which)  we  have." 

Who  is  used  to  represent  jDcrsons,  which  to  represent 
inferior  animals  and  things  without  life,  what  to  repre- 
sent things,  and  that  to  represent  both  persons  and 
things. 

What,  that,  and  which  have  the  same  form  in  the  nom- 
inative as  in  the  objective  case. 

In  many  sentences  what  is  equivalent  to  both  the  ante- 
cedent and  the  relative ;  as  in — 

a.  That  is  what  I  saw. 

b.  He  bought  what  he  wanted. 

In  parsing  ichat,  a  form  something  like  the  following 
is  the  simplest :  In  the  first  sentence,  "  What  is  a  rela- 
tive pronoun  having  a  double  construction.  It  is  in  the 
nominative  case  after  is,  and  in  the  objective  case  after 
sa;<;." 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  91 

Three  of  the  words  used  as  relative  pronouns,  who, 
which,  what,  are  used  also  as  Interrogative  Pronouns. 

Interrogative  pronouns  are  used  to  ask  questions. 

Tlie  possessive  form  of  who  and  wJiich  is  whose.  What 
and  tJiat  have  no  possessive  form. 

Syntax  op  Relative  Pronouns. 

The  relative  pronoun  who  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
names  of  animals  when  these  are  personified;  as,  "The 
fox,  ivho  now  addressed  the  assembly,"  etc. 

Which  was  formerly  used  in  referring  to  persons ;  as, 
"  Our  Fatlier,  ivhich  art  in  heaven,"  but  the  question  is 
pertinent  as  to  this'  expression,  the  opening  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  May  not  the  use  of  tvhich  here  -arise  from  the 
thought  that  the  petitioner  was  addressing  the  Lord  not 
as  a  person  but  as  a  pure  spirit  ? 

A  clause  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun  is  said  to 
be  restrictive  when  it  limits  or  restricts  the  meaning  of 
its  antecedent  word  as  would  be  done  by  an  adjective. 
Thus,  "  The  man  who  is  industrious  will  succeed ;"  that 
is,  "  The  industrious  man  will  succeed." 

Notice  the  difference  in  the  force  of  the  relative  clauses 
in  the  following : 

a.  "My  brother  that  is  studying  law  will  be  examined 
in  June."  {Restrictive.) 

h.  "  My  brother,  who  has  been  spending  the  summer 
with  us,  will  return  to  the  city  soon."  (Non-restrictive.) 

In  sentence  h,  the  subordinate  clause  "  who  has  been 
spending  the  summer  with  us,"  may  be  stricken  out 
without  changing  the  meaning  of  the  main  clause,  but 
this  cannot  be  done  with  a  restrictive  clause. 

Relative  pronouns  which  are  used  apparently  in  an- 
swer to  questions,  as  "  Who  spoke  ?" — "  I  do  not  know 
who  spoke,"  are  known  as  Responsive  Relative  Pronouns. 


92  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

The  relative  pronoun  should  be  placed  near  its  ante- 
cedent to  avoid  ambiguity. 

When  a  relative  pronoun  represents  a  collective  noun 
denoting  unity,  u-Jiirli  is  used ;  as,  ''  Tlie  school,  uhich 
convened  at  nine,  has  been  dismissed." 

When  a  proper  name  is  used  merely  as  a  word,  it  is 
represented  by  ivhich;  thus,  "  Wasliington,  a  name  which 
is  dear  to  every  American." 

What  should  not  be  used  instead  of  the  conjunction 
that;  as,  "We  do  not  know  but  what  [that]  he  may 
come." 

Whom  and  wJiich  generally  follow  the  preposition  by 
which  they  are  governed ;  tJiat  always  precedes  both  the 
verb  and  the  preposition.  Thus,  "To  whom  did  he 
speak?"    "Here  is  the  boy  that  I  spoke  to." 

That  is  frequently  used  instead  of  who  or  whicJi.  The 
following  are  the  most  important  cases : 

a.  After  tvho  used  interrogatively  ;  as,  "  Who  that  has 
seen  his  work  is  not  pleased  ?" 

b.  After  an  adjective  or  an  adverb  in  the  superlative 
degree;  as,  "This  is  the  best  that  we  could  get." 

c.  When  reference  is  made  to  antecedents  which  sep- 
arately are  represented  by  ivho  and  idiich ;  as,  "  Botli  the 
horse  and  the  rider  that  we  saw  fell  off  tlie  bridge." 

d.  After  the  adjectives  same,  very,  and  every,  when  the 
relative  clause  is  restrictive;  as,  "This  is  the  same  man 
that  called  yesterday." 

c.  After  the  pronoun  it  used  indefinitely  ;  as,  "  It  was 
not  I  alone  that  was  careless." 

/.  After  all  and  similar  antecedents  when  tlie  limiting 
clause  is  restrictive;  as,  "All  that  are  stialiou.s  will  im- 
prove." 

By  many  writers  and  speakers  tlie  last  of  these  rules 
is  not  strictly  observed.     Thus,  while  it  is  certainly  cor- 


ENGLISH  GBA3TMAE.  93 

rect  to  say  "  All  that  are  interested  will  remain,"  the 
form  "  All  who  are  interested  will  remain  "  is  sanctioned 
by  custom  at  least. 

A  change  of  relatives  referring  to  the  same  antecedent 
should  be  avoided.  The  following  is  incorrect :  "  This 
is  the  same  person  tJiat  called,  and  ivhom  we  met  in  the 
city." 

Violations  of  the  Correct  Usage  of  Relative  Pronouns. 

Who  [whornj  have  we  here? — Goldsmith. 

Our  party  of  seventeen,  the  largest  which  [that]  ever  entered 
the  valley. — Richardson. 

Massillon  is  perhaps  the  most  eloquent  writer  of  sermons 
which  [that]  modern  times  have  produced. — Blair. 

Who  [whom]  should  I  meet  the  other  day  but  my  old  friend? 
— Steele. 

The  princes  and  states  ^vho  [that]  had  neglected  or  favored 
the  growth  of  this  power. — Bolingbroke. 

The  army  whom  [which]  the  chief  had  abandoned,  pursued 
meanwhile  their  [its]  miserable  march. — Lockhart's  Napoleon. 

Both  minister  and  magistrate  are  compelled  to  choose  be- 
tween his  [their]  duty  and  (their)  reputation. — Junius. 

The  first  American  who  [that]  adopted  literature  as  a  calling, 
and  who  [that]  successfully  relied  on  his  pen  for  support,  etc. — 
A  History  of  Literature. 

This  is  just  as  if  an  eye  or  a  foot  should  demand  a  salary  for 
their  [its]  service  to  the  body. — Collier'' s  Antoninus. 

When  you  press  a  watch  or  pull  a  clock,  they  answer  [it  an- 
swers] your  question  with  precision,  for  they  report  [it  reports] 
exactly  the  hour  of  the  day,  and  tell  [tells]  you  neither  more 
nor  less  than  you  desire  to  know. — Bolinybroke. 

Valancourt  was  the  hero  of  one  of  the  most  famous  romances 
which  [that]  was  [were]  publi-shed  in  this  country. —  Thackeray. 
Not  the  Mogul,  or  Czar  of  Muscovy, 
Nor  [or]  Prester  John,  or  Chan  of  Tartary, 
Are  [is]  in  their  houses  [his  house]  monarch  more  than  I. 

— King  :  British  Poets. 


94  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Bryant  was  the  first  American  ivho  [that]  discovered  that  the 
flowers  and  birds  of  New  EngUmd  were  not  those  of  Old  Eng- 
land.— A  History  of  Literature. 

Tlie  same  might  as  well  be  said  of  Virgil,  or  any  (other)  great 
author,  whose  general  character  will  infallibly  raise  many  casual 
additions  to  their  [his]  reputation. — Po/^c. 

The  crisis  is  one  of  the  most  singular  which  [tluitj  have  ever 
occurred. — Econoriiist. 

All  the  virtues  of  mankind  are  to  be  counted  upon  a  few  fin- 
gers, but  his  [its]  follies  and  vices  are  innumerable. — Sivift. 

Undoubtedly  he  was  the  most  powerful  speaker,  the  most 
active  minister,  the  truest  man,  which  [that]  the  kirk  has  had 
since  Chalmers'  death.  —  W.  C.  Smith,  in  Theological  Review. 


Reflexive  Pronouns. 

Dr.  Morris,  in  English  Accidence,  shows  that  formerly 
the  simple  personal  pronouns  might  be  used  reflexively, 
as  in  Shakespeare's  Merchant  of  Venice,  "  I  do  repent  me," 
the  addition  of  the  syllable  self  only  rendering  their  re- 
flective signification  more  emphatic.  Self  was  an  adjec- 
tive, meaning  same,  but  afterward  it  became  a  noun. 
Ben  Jonson  uses  the  phrase  "my  woeful  self." 

The  use  of  myself,  yourself,  etc.,  for  I,  your,  etc.,  is  not 
sanctioned  by  good  authority.  Thus,  "  Myself  did  it," 
is  not  regarded  as  good  English,  because  the  word  myself 
here  loses  its  reflective  character  and  becomes  the  simple 
subject. 

Violations  of  the  Correct  Usag'e  of  Compound  Personal 
Pronouns. 

I  saw  that  it  was  impossible  tliat  Sir  Lionel  Somors  and  my- 
self [I)  should  ever  get  on  well  together  as  man  and  wife. — 
^ingsley. 

Jerrold,  Mr.  Herbert  Ingram,  Mr.  Peter  Cunningham,  and 
myself  [I]   were  out  for  a  day's  ramble. — Hr.  Charles  Mackay. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  95 

Mr.  Studer  and  myself  [I]  had  already  decided  on  taking  one 
man  apiece  as  a  personal  attendant. — Prof.  P.  Forbes. 

Parliament,  yourself  [you]  and  many  other  independent  mem- 
bers, were  unwillingly,  etc. — Benj.  Disraeli. 

The  reader  will  be  indebted  for  any  interest  he  may  find  in 
these  pages  as  much  to  my  correspondents  as  myself  [to  me]. — 
Public  School  Report. 

In  October,  George  and  myself  [I]  went  to  spend  a  week  or 
ten  days  at  Hampton  Court. — Mrs.  Grote :  Life  of  George  Grote. 

Verbs. 

The  chief  division  of  verbs  is  into  transitive  and  in- 
transitive, the  former  of  which  may  be  followed  by  a 
noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  objective  case,  and  the  latter 
not. 

A  transitive  verb  expresses  action,  and  this  action  is 
such  as  either  literally  or  figuratively  passes  from  the 
actor  to  a  receiver  of  the  act. 

A  transitive  verb  requires  an  object  to  complete  its 
meaning.  Thus,  "  He 'makes  "  is  not  complete  in  sense 
until  some  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective  case  is 
made  to  follow ;  as,  "  He  makes  wagons."  Makes  is 
therefore  a  transitive  verb. 

When  the  sense  is  complete  without  the  use  of  an 
object,  the  verb  is  intransitive;  thus,  the  verb  hake  in 
the  sentence,  "  She  can  bake,"  though  in  the  sentence 
"She  can  bake  bread,"  the  same  verb,  hake,  is  transi- 
tive. 

An  intransitive  verb  that  does  not  express  action  is 
known  as  a  Neuter  Verb;  as,  ^5,  are,  ivas,  etc. 

An  intransitive  verb  may  be  used  transitively  when 
followed  by  a  word  of  similar  meaning;  as,  "I  dreamed 
a  dream  f^  "She  lived  a  wretched  Zifg." 

An  intransitive  verb  may  also  be  used  transitively 


96  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

when  it  has  a  causative  meaning ;  as.  "  The  boy  flies 
his  kite "  (causes  it  to  fly) ;  "  The  engineer  runs  his 
engine." 

A  verb  may  be  transitive  with  one  meaning  and  in- 
transitive with  another.  Thus,  "  I  will  return  the 
books "  (trans.) ;  "  We  will  return  to  the  city "  (in- 
trans.). 

VOICE. 

Transitive  verbs  are  said  to  have  voice,  a  property 
which  shows  whether  the  subject  of  the  sentence  rep- 
resents the  actor  or  the  thing  acted  upon ;  as,  "  The  boy 
shot  a  bird  ;"  "  A  bird  was  shot  by  the  boy."  The  first 
form,  where  the  subject  represents  the  actor,  is  known 
as  the  Active  Voice,  and  the  second  as  the  Passive  Voice. 
The  verbs  in  these  sentences,  shot  and  was  shot,  are  the 
same  verb  in  two  forms,  either  showing  that  the  action 
passes  from  one  object,  boy,  to  another,  bird. 

Intransitive  verbs  may,  when  followed  by  a  preposi- 
tion, take  the  form  of  the  passive  voice ;  as,  "  We  iccre 
laughed  at^''  (ridiculed).  In  such  sentences  the  verb, 
including  the  preposition,  is  a  complex  verb. 

Sometimes  transitive  verbs  have  the  active  form  with 
a  passive  meaning ;  as, 

n.  8ome  goods  sell  readily. 
b.  The  field  ploughs  well. 

MODE. 

Mode  is  the  manner  in  which  an  assertion  is  ex- 
pressed. Most  grammarians  give  five  modes  of  the 
verb, — Indicative,  Potential,  Subjunctive,  Imperative,  and 
Infinitive. 

Some  reject  the  potential,  and  others  seem  inclined  to 
reject  the  subjunctive. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  97 

Hodgson,  in  his  Errors  in  the  Use  of  English,  says,  "The 
mood  in  the  use  of  which  mistakes  are  commonest,  is 
the  subjunctive,  a  mood  that  as  a  separate  inflection  is 
dying  out  in  the  language,  the  tendency  being  to  merge 
the  distinction  between  it  and  the  indicative." 

The  subjunctive  mode  is  used  to  express  an  assertion 
as  doubtful  or  conditional. 

The  distinction  between  the  indicative  and  the  sub- 
junctive is  usually  carefully  observed  by  correct  writers. 
Thus, 

a.  If  it  rains  (now),  let  us  remain  indoors. 

b.  If  it  rain  to-morrow,  we  cannot  go. 

The  first  of  these  sentences  admits  of  no  doubt.  It 
either  rains  or  it  does  not  rain,  and  the  fact  that  we 
know  is  implied  in  the  indicative  form,  "  If  it  rains." 
But  in  the  second  sentence  we  are  in  doubt,  unable  to 
tell  whether  it  will  or  will  not  rain  to-morrow,  and 
therefore  express  our  doubt  in  the  subjunctive  form, 
"  If  it  rain." 

Sometimes  the  sign  of  the  subjunctive  is  omitted ;  as, 
"  Were  I  in  his  place ;"  that  is,  "  If  I  were  in  his  place." 

The  conjunctions  mostly  used  to  introduce  the  sub- 
junctive form  are  unless,  if  though,  lest,  except,  provided; 
but  these  conjunctions,  or  at  least  a  part  of  them,  may 
be  used  with  the  indicative  form.  For  a  verb  to  be  in 
the  subjunctive  mode,  the  essential  thing  is  that  it 
express  doubt,  or  a  future  contingency  or  condition. 

Errors  in  the  Use  of  Modes. 

We  shall  be  disgusted  if  he  gives  [give]  us  too  much. — Blair. 

If  thou  findest  [find]  any  kernelwort  in  the  marshy  meadow, 
bring  it  me. — Neef's  Methods  of  Teaching. 

What  is  it  to  thee,  if  he  neglect  thy  urn, 

Or  without  spices  lets  [let]  thy  body  burn  ? — Dryden. 


98  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

A  certain  lady  whom  I  could  name  if  it  icas  [were]  necessary. 
— Spectator. 

Human  works  are  of  no  significancy  till  they  be  [are]  com- 
pleted.— Karnes. 

Though  perspicuity  be  [is]  more  properly  a  rhetorical  than  a 
grammatical  quality,  I  thought  it  better  to  include  it  in  this 
book. —  Campbell's  Rhetoric. 

Although  the  efficient  cause  be  [is]  obscure,  the  final  cause 
of  those  sensations  lies  open. — Blair. 

Our  disgust  lessens  gradually  till  it  vanish  [vanishes]  alto- 
gether.— Karnes:  Elements  of  Criticism. 

It  ought  to  weigh  heavily  on  a  man's  conscience  if  he  have 
[has]  been  the  cause  of  another's  deviating  from  sincerity. — 
W.J.  Fox:  Works. 

Enough  has  been  done,  I  trust,  to  satisfy  them  that  if  Keble 
was  a  scholar,  a  divine,  a  remarkably  gifted  poet,  if  he  were 
[was]  exemplary  as  a  friend,  a  brother,  son,  and  husband,  so  he 
was  admirable  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties  as  a  parish  priest. 
—Sir  J.  T.  Coleridge. 

If  the  cavern  into  which  they  entered  ivere  [was]  of  artificial 
construction,  considerable  pains  had  been  taken  to  make  it  look 
natural.  —  W.  Black. 

If  I  avi  [be]  in  the  City  at  that  time,  I  will  do  all  I  can  to 
prevent  the  desecration  of  the  Sabbath. — Newspaper. 

TENSE. 

Tense  is  said  to  denote  the  time  of  nn  action  or  event. 
The  indicative  mode  has  six  tenses :  three  absolute, — the 
Present,  the  Pad,  and  tlie  Future;  and  three  relative, — 
the  Present  Pei-fect,  the  Past  Perfect,  and  the  Future  Per- 
fect. 

The  indicative  mode  is  tlie  only  one  in  which  the 
tenses  indicate  time  accurately. 

The  Present  and  the  Present  Perfect  tense  both  refer 
to  present  time.  The  former  represents  an  act  as  taking 
place  at  the  present  time;  as,  "  I  write,"  while  the  Pres- 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  99 

ent  Perfect  represents  an  act  as  completed  during  present 
time;  as,  "I  have  written  to-day."  The  present  perfect 
tense  of  the  indicative  mode  has  for  its  sign  the  word 
have;   as,  "have  sung;"  "have  seen." 

The  Present  Tense,  in  addition  to  denoting  present 
time,  may  express  a  general  truth ;  as,  "  Cold  freezes 
water." 

It  may  also  express  a  habit  or  a  custom;  as,  "The 
boy  is  diligent;"  "We  think  constantly." 

It  may  also  represent  the  past  or  the  future  as  pres- 
ent ;  as,  "  Columbus  crosses  the  ocean  and  discovers  a 
new  world ;"  "  I  see  the  era  of  prosperity  as  it  dawns 
upon  us." 

The  Past  Tense  denotes  what  took  place  in  past  time ; 
as,  "  We  sang ;"  "  We  were  singing." 

It  also  expresses  what  was  customary ;  as,  "  They 
always  were  very  agreeable." 

The  Past  Perfect  Tense  denotes  an  action  or  an  event 
as  complete  before  some  past  time;  as,  "The  meeting 
had  convened  before  we  arrived ;"  that  is,  we  arrived 
in  past  time,  but  the  convening  of  the  meeting,  also 
in  past  time,  had  taken  place  before  our  arrival. 

The  sign  of  the  past  perfect  tense  in  the  indicative 
mode  is  hid;  as,  "  had  gone ;"  "had  sung." 

The  Future  Tense  denotes  future  time ;  as,  "  We  shall 
come;"  "They  will  pay  us  a  visit." 

The  sign  of  the  future  tense  is  shall  or  will. 

In  promises,  xvill  is  used  in  the  first  person,  and  shall 
in  the  second  and  the  third  ;  as,  "  I  will  go ;"  "  He  shall 
go." 

To  denote  futurity  or  prediction,  shall  is  used  in  the 
first  person,  and  will  in  the  second  and  the  third ;  as, 
"We  shall  be  there;"  "Will  you  be  there?" 

The  Future  Perfect  Tense  denotes  an  act  completed 


100  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

before  some  future  time ;  as,  "  The  train  will  have  gone 
before  we  reach  the  station ;"  that  is,  we  shall  reach  the 
station  in  future  time,  but  the  going  of  the  train  will  be 
an  act  completed  before  our  reaching  the  station. 

The  sign  of  the  future  perfect  tense  is  will  have  or  shall 
have.  Thus,  "  The  snow  will  have  melted  before  spring 
comes ;"  "  We  shall  have  completed  the  work  before  the 
close  of  the  week." 

There  are  many  errors  made  in  connection  with  the 
past  perfect  and  the  future  perfect  tense,  especially  in 
ordinary  conversation. 

Goold  Brown  gives  the  following  sentence  from  Blair 
as  an  impropriety  for  correction  :  "  I  had  written  before 
I  received  his  letter."    The  sentence  is  correct. 

Errors  in  the  Use  of  Tenses. 

It  was  observed  by  Newton  that  the  diamond  possessed  [pos- 
sesses] a  very  high  refractive  power  compared  with  its  density. 
— Haven. 

It  always  was  [has  been]  my  opinion  that  we  would  succeed 
finally. — Newspaper. 

As  we  remember  to  have  heard  an  acute  and  learned  judge 
profess  his  ignorance  of  what  an  articulator  was  [is],  we  may 
explain,  etc.  —  Westminster  Review. 

He  insisted  that  the  Constitution  wa.'i  [is]  certain  and  fixed, 
and  contained  [contains]  the  permanent  will  of  the  people,  and 
was  [is]  the  supreme  law,  and  could  [can]  be  revoked  only  by 
the  authority  that  made  it. — Kent. 

It  was  [is]  a  pity  I  was  the  only  child ;  for  my  mother  had 
fondness  of  heart  enough  to  have  spoiled  a  dozen. — Irving. 

Arts  were  [had  been]  of  late  introduced  among  them. — 
Blair. 

The  wittiness  of  the  passage  was  [had  been]  already  illus- 
trated.—  ('amjMVs  Rhetoric. 

They  have  done  [did]  anciently  a  great  deal  of  hurt. — Boling- 
hrohe. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  101 

I  observed  that  love  constituted  [constitutes]  the  whole  moral 
character  of  God. — Dwight. 

Two  young  gentlemen,  who  have  made  a  discovery  that  there 
was  [is]  no  God. — Swift. 

Syntax  of  Verbs. 

A  finite  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  number  and 
person. 

Though  the  pronouns  we  and  you  are  frequently  used 
to  represent  a  single  person,  the  verbs  used  with  them 
must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural  form. 

When  iV,  used  indefinitely,  is  the  subject  of  a  sentence, 
the  verb  agrees  with  it  in  the  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, but  the  verb  may  be  followed  by  a  nominative  dif- 
fering from  the  subject  in  either  person  or  number,  or 
both  ;  as,  "  It  was  either  you  or  they  that  called  to  me." 

When  the  subject  of  a  sentence  is  a  phrase  or  a  clause, 
the  verb  agrees  with  it  in  the  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber; as,  "To  know  great  and  good  men  is  a  pleasure." 

The  finite  verb  never  agrees  with  a  noun  in  the  first 
or  the  second  person,  but  with  a  pronoun  representing 
it.  Thus,  "  I,  James  Smith,  do  hereb}'  depose;"  "  Boys, 
you  deserve  much  praise." 

The  number  of  a  verb  having  for  its  subject  a  noun 
whose  form  is  the  same  in  both  numbers,  is  determined 
by  the  meaning  of  the  sentence.  Thus,  "  A  sheep  was 
sold;"  "Some  sheep  were  sold." 

When  a  verb  has  several  subjects  of  different  persons, 
it  agrees  with  the  first  person  rather  than  the  second, 
and  with  the  second  rather  than  the  third.  Thus,  "You 
and  I  will  go ;"  "  He  and  you  came ;"  "  He  and  I  will 
go." 

When  two  or  more  subjects  in  the  singular  number, 
connected  bv  and,  follow  the  verb,  it  is  sometimes  used 


102  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

in  its  singular  form  ;  as,  "Thine  is  the  kingdom,  and  the 
power,  and  the  glory."  In  expressions  like  this  the 
speaker  seems  to  lix  his  attention  on  eacli  subject  sep- 
arately. 

In  the  expressions  as  folloics,  as  appears,  etc.,  a  subject 
seems  to  be  understood;  thus,  "As  (itj  follows;"  "As  (it) 
apjDcars." 

A  verb  in  tlie  imperative  mode  agrees  with  a  subject, 
thou,  ye,  you,  understood. 

In  such  sentences  as  "  Let  there  be  light,"  the  ex- 
pression is  used  without  reference  to  a  subject,  but  the 
verb  is  still  in  the  imperative  mode. 

Subjects,  Collective  Nouns. — When  the  subject  of 
a  sentence  is  a  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea  of 
unity,  the  verb  agrees  with  it  in  the  singular  number. 
Thus,  "The  army  has  changed  its  course." 

When  the  subject  of  a  sentence  is  a  collective  noun 
conveying  tlie  idea  of  plurality,  the  verb  agrees  with  it 
in  the  j)lural  number.  Tlius,  "The  public  are  invited;''^ 
"  The  committee  do  not  agree  in  their  suggestions." 

Errors  in  the  Use  of  Verbs  having  Collective  Nouns  for 
Subjects. 

Far  the  greater  part  of  their  captives  was  [were]  anciently 
sacrificed. — Robertson'' s  America. 

The  greater  part  of  these  new-coined  [?  newly-coined]  words 
has  [have]  been  rejected. — Home  Tookc. 

While  all  our  youth  ^re/ers  [prefer]  her  to  the  rest. —  Waller^s 
Poems. 

While  still  the  busy  world  Is  [are]  treading  o'er 

The  paths  they  trod  five  thousand  years  before.  —  Yoimg. 

So  that  the  whole  number  of  the  streets  were  [was]  fifty. — 
Roll  in' s  Ancient  History. 

The  number  of  inhabitants  luerc  [wasj  not  more  than  four 
millions. — Smollett. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  103 

The  House  of  Commons  ivere  [was]  of  small  weight.- — Hunt. 

Small  as  the  number  of  inhabitants  are  [is],  yet  their  poverty 
is  extreme. — Fapie's  Geology. 

The  number  of  school  districts  have  [has]  increased  during 
the  year. — School  Report. 

In  France  the  peasantry  goes  [go]  barefoot,  and  the  middle 
sort  makes  [make]  use  of  wooden  shoes. — Harvey. 

Above  [?  more  than]  one-half  of  them  tvas  [were]  cut  off 
before  the  return  of  spring. — Robertson's  America. 

Subjects  Connected  by  And  or  As  well  as. — A  verb 
having  two  or  more  subjects  denoting  difierent  persons 
or  things  taken  together,  agrees  with  them  in  the  plural 
number;  as,  "Father  and  mother  are  here." 

A  verb  having  two  or  more  singular  subjects  connected 
by  and,  but  referring  to  the  same  person  or  thing,  is  in 
the  singular  number.  Thus,  "  The  great  orator  and 
statesman,  Webster,  ivas  a  senator." 

Wlien  two  or  more  subjects  in  the  singular  number 
are  preceded  b}'  each,  every,  or  no,  the  verb  agrees  with 
them  in  the  singular  number.  Thus,  "  Every  man, 
woman,  and  child  teas  attentive." 

When  two  subjects  in  tlie  singular  number,  connected 
by  and,  are  emphatically  distinguished,  they  belong  to 
different  propositions,  and  the  verb  expressed  agrees 
with  the  first  onl}',  the  predicate  of  the  second  being 
understood.  Thus,  "Their  pleasure,  and  not  the  wel- 
fare of  the  people,  was  their  chief  consideration." 

When  the  verb  separates  the  subjects,  it  agrees  with 
that  which  precedes  it ;  as,  "  Thy  beauty  walks,  thy  ten- 
derness and  love." 

When  two  subjects  are  connected  by  and,  one  of  which 
is  affirmative  and  the  other  negative,  they  belong  to  dif- 
ferent propositions,  and  the  verb  agrees  with  the  affirm- 
ative subject,  and  is  understood  with  the  other.     Thus, 


104  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

"Our  character,  and  not  onr  \)rok'S'&\ow.^  recommends  us;" 
''  Not  a  loud  voice,  but  strong  proofs,  bring  conviction." 

When  two  subjects  are  connected  by  as  well  as,  but, 
save,  also,  but  not,  they  belong  to  different  propositions, 
and  the  verb  agrees  with  the  first,  being  understood  with 
the  others.  Thus,  "  Prudence,  as  well  as  right,  dictates 
that  a  man  should  be  just." 

Every  verb  except  those  in  the  infinitive  or  the  im- 
perative mode  should  have  a  subject  expressed,  unless 
several  verbs  have  the  snrne  construction.  Thus,  "  He 
knows  his  duty  but  will  not  do  it,"  should  be  "He 
knows  his  duty  but  he  will  not  do  it." 

Two  or  more  distinct  subject  phrases  connected  by 
and  require  a  plural  verb.  Thus,  "To  do  our  duty  to 
the  public  and  to  be  just  to  ourselves  are  sometimes 
difficult." 

Errors  in  the  Use  of  Verbs. 

Hill  and  dale  doth  [do]  boast  thy  blessing. — Milton. 

Common  sense,  as  well  as  piety,  tell  [tellsj  us  these  are 
proper. — Comvieittary. 

Therein  consists  [consist]  the  force  and  use  and  nature  of 
language. — Berkeley. 

How  is  [are]  the  gender  and  (the)  number  of  a  relative 
known  ? — Bullions. 

The  syntax  and  (the)  etymology  of  the  language  is  [are] 
thus  spread  before  the  learner. — Bullions. 

How  each  of  these  professions  are  [is]  crowded! — Addison. 

Both  death  and  I  am  [are]  found  eternal. — Milton. 

The  boldness,  freedom,  and  variety  of  our  blank  verse  is  [are] 
infinitely  more  favorable  than  rhyme  to  all  kinds  of  poetry. — 
Blair's  Eheloric. 

When  the  force  and  direction  of  personal  satire  is  [are]  no 
longer  understood. — Junius. 

In  consequence  of  tliis  idea  niucli  ridicule  and  censun.'  has 
[liave]  been  tlirown  upon  JMilton. — Blair. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  105 

Consequently,  wberever  space  and  time  h  [are]  found,  there 
God  must  also  be. — Sir  Isaac  Newton. 

For  where  does  [do]  beauty  and  high  wit 
But  in  yon  constellation  meet? — Butler's  Hudibras. 
Thence  to  the  land  where  fiows  [flow]  Ganges  and  Indus. — 
Milton. 

High  rides  the  sun,  thick  rolls  the  dust, 

And  feebler  speeds  [speed]  the  blow  and  thrust.— ^S/r  W.  Scott. 
By  wliich  an  oath  and  (a)  penalty  was  [were]  to  be  imposed 
upon  the  members. — Junius. 

There  is  [are]  also  the  fear  and  (the)  apprehension  of  it. — 
Butler's  Analogy. 

Bitter  constraint  and  sad  occasion  dear 

Compels  [compel]  me  to  disturb  your  seasons  due. 

— Milton's  Lycidas. 
But  it,  as   well  as  the  lines   immediately  subsequent,  defy 
[defies]  all  translation. — Coleridge. 

But  their  religion,  as  well  as  their  customs  and  manners,  ivere 
[was]  strangely  misapprehended. — Bolinghrohe. 

But  his  jealous  policy,  as  well  as  the  fatal  antipathy  of  Fon- 
seca,  were  [was]  conspicuous. — Robertson's  America. 

By  that  time  every  window  and  every  door  on  the  street  were 
[was]  full  of  heads. — Newspaper. 

Subjects  Connected  by  Or  or  Nor. — ^^''hen  two  or 
more  subjects  in  the  singular  number  are  connected  by 
or  or  nor,  the  verb  agrees  with  them  in  the  singular. 
Thus,  "  Neither  parent  nor  child  was  saved." 

When  one  of  the  subjects  connected  Joy  or  or  nor  is  in 
the  plural  number,  it  is  placed  nearest  the  verb,  and  the 
verb  is  made  plural.  Thus,  "  Neither  the  teacher  nor 
the  pupils  were  present." 

When  the  verb  has  two  or  more  subjects  of  different 
persons,  connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  agrees  in  person  with 
the  one  nearest  to  it.  Thus,  "  Neither  he  nor  I  am  will- 
ing;" "  Neither  Henry  nor  you  are  ready." 


106  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Errors  in  the  Use  of  Verbs. 

No  monstrous  height,  or  length,  or  breadth  appear  [appears]. 
— Pope. 

Nor  want  nor  cold  his  course  delay  [delays]. — Johnson. 

Neither  the  intellect  nor  the  heart  are  [isj  capable  of  being 
driven. — Abbott. 

Nor  he  nor  I  are  [am]  capable  of  harboring  a  thought  against 
your  peace.  —  Walpole. 

By  which  he,  or  his  deputy,  were  [was]  authorized  to  cut  down 
any  trees  in  Whittlebury  forest. — Junius. 

A  lucky  anecdote,  or  an  enlivening  talk,  relieve  [relieves]  the 
folio  page. — Isaac  Disraeli. 

Yet  sometimes  we  have  seen  that  wine,  or  chance,  have  [has] 
warmed  cold  brains. — Dryden. 

A  rusty  nail,  or  a  crooked  pin,  shoot  [shoots]  up  into  prodi- 
gies (?a  prodigy). — Spectator. 

Neither  history  nor  tradition /«/vi/«/i  [furnishes]  such  infor- 
mation.— Robertson. 

Praise  from  a  friend  or  censure  from  a  foe, 

Are  [is]  lost  on  hearers  that  our  merits  know. — Pope. 

Neither  Charles  nor  his  brother  toere  [was]  qualified  to  sup- 
port such  a  system. — Junivs. 

When,  therefore,  neither  the  liveliness  of  representation,  nor 
the  warmth  of  passion,  serve  [serves],  as  it  were,  to  cover  the 
trespass,  it  is  not  safe  to  leave  the  beaten  track. —  CampbelPs 
Phetoric. 

Neither  the  general  situation  of  our  colonies,  nor  that  partic- 
ular distress  which  forced  the  inhabitants  of  Boston  to  take  up 
arms,  have  [has]  been  thought  worthy  of  a  moment's  considera- 
tion.— Junius. 

Surely  none  of  our  readers  are  so  unfortunate  as  not  to  know 
some  man  or  woman  who  carry  [carries]  this  atmosphere  of 
peace  and  good  will  about  them  [?]. — Kingsley. 

No  action  or  institution  can  be  salutary  and  stable  which  are 
[is]  not  based  on  reason  and  the  will  of  God. — Matthew  Arnold. 

Neither  his  conduct  nor  his  language  have  [ha:?]  left  me  with 
that  impression. — Lord  Houyhton. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  107 

The  excommunication  of  the  Stock  Exchange  is  far  more 
terrible  than  the  interdict  of  the  Pope  or  the  ban  of  Empire 
ever  were  [was]. — -P''o/.  Rogers. 

The  Subject,  -with  Modifiers. — A  modifier  of  the  sub- 
ject of  a  sentence  does  not  affect  the  form  of  the  verb. 
Thus,  "The  number  of  visitors  increases  daily;"  "Tiiree 
months'  interest  is  due." 

When  the  subject  is  a  relative  pronoun,  the  verb  takes 
its  number  from  the  antecedent.  Thus,  "  The  new  audi- 
torium is  one  of  the  finest  buildings  that  ever  have  been 
erected  in  the  City." 

Errors  in  the  Use  of  Verbs. 

The  ninth  book  of  Livy  aflbrds  one  of  the  most  beautiful  ex- 
emplifications of  historical  2)aiuting  that  is  [are]  anywhere  to 
be  met  with. — Blair. 

The  idea  of  such  a  collection  of  men  as  make  [makes]  an 
army. — Locke. 

How  beauty  is  excelled  h\  manly  grace 
And  wisdom,  which  alone  is  [are]  truly  fair.- — Milton. 
What  art  thou,  speak,  that  on  designs  unknown, 
While  others  sleep,  thus  range  [rangestj  the  camp  alone? 

— Pope. 
The  rapidity  of  his  movements  were  [was]  beyond  examjjle. — 
Wells'  Historij. 

The  mechanism  of  clocks  and  watches  were  [was]  totally 
unknown. — Hume. 

And  each  of  these  afford  [affords]  employment. — Percival's 
Tales. 

The  judicial  power  of  these  courts  extend  [extends]  to  all 
cases  in  law  and  equity. — School  History. 

This  is  one  of  the  very  best  treatises  on  money  and  coins  that 
has  [have]  ever  been  published. — J.  R.  McCullough. 

I  confess  that  I  am  one  who  am  [is]  unable  to  refuse  my  [his] 
assent  to  the  conclusions  of  those  philosophers  who  assert  that 
nothing  exists  as  it  is  perceived. — P.  B.  Shelley. 


108  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Cardinal  Wiseman  has  taken  advantage  of  tlie  attack  to  put 
forth  one  of  the  most  brilliant  appeals  that  Itiis  |havol  appeared 
in  my  time. — Miss  Miiford:  Yesterdays  tcilh  Authors. 

Whenever  Don  Guzman  replied  with  one  of  those  smiles  of 
his,  which  (as  Aymas  said  afterward)  ivas  [were]  so  abominably 
like  a  sneer,  that  he  had  often  hard  work  to  keep  Jiis  hands  off 
the  man. — Kingsley. 

Nominatives  to  be  Expressed. — Every  finite  verb 
not  in  the  imperative  mode  should  liave  a  separate 
nominative  expressed  except  when  the  verb  is  repeated 
for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  or  is  connected  with  another 
verb  in  the  same  construction,  or  is  put  after  but  or  than. 

Subjects  Improperly  Omitted. 

There  is  no  man  (who)  would  be  more  welcome. — Steele. 

There  is  no  man  (who)  doth  a  wrong  for  wrong's  sake. — Lord 
Bacon. 

The  web  of  the  natural  and  (that  of)  the  supernatural  are  so 
woven  together  in  the  soul  that  they  cannot  be  untied. — John 
Duncan,  IjL.D. 

Who  is  here  so  base  that  (he)  would  be  a  bondsman. — Beau- 
ties of  Shakespeare. 

Mr.  Prince  has  a  genius  (that)  would  prompt  him  to  better 
things. — Spectator. 

Between  an  antecedent  and  a  consequent,  or  Avhat  goes  before, 
and  (what)  immediately  follows. — Blair's  Rhetoric. 

All  the  various  miseries  of  life,  which  people  bring  upon 
themselves  by  negligence  and  folly,  and  (which)  might  have 
been  avoided  by  proper  care,  are  instances  of  this. — Butler's 
Analogij. 

Will  martial  flames  forever  fire  thy  mind. 

And  (thou)  never,  never  to  Heaven  be  resigned? — Pope. 

Discrepant  Subjects. — Sometimes  in  compound  sen- 
tences a  single  predicate  is  used  in  connection  with  two 
or  more  subjects ;  as,  "  Not  a  drum  was  heard  nor  a 
funeral  note.'''' 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  ■  109 

This  construction  is  admissible  only  where  the  sub- 
jects are  in  the  same  number,  otherwise  the  rule  for  the 
agreement  of  a  verb  with  its  subject  is  violated,  as  in  the 
following :  "  They  are  easily  avoided,  and  their  existence 
(     )  forgotten." 

Verbs  Improperly  Omitted. 

The  civil  government  was  tlicn  very  submissive,  and  heretics 
(     )  ahnost  unknown. — Lecky. 

His  beard  was  white,  his  face  (  )  pale  and  melancholy,  his 
eyes  (     )  lustrous. — Miss  M.  B.  Edwards. 

His  diet  was  abstemious,  his  prayers  (  )  long  and  fervent, 
and  the  alms  which  he  received  with  one  hand  he  distributed 
with  the  other. —  Gibbon. 

The  evening  was  made  pleasant  with  sacred  music,  and  the 
fatigues  of  two  long  services  (  )  repaired  by  simple  refections. 
— Holmes. 

Massinger  is  a  decided  Whig ;  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  (  ) 
high-flying,  passive-obedience  Tories. — Leslie  Stephen. 

He  belongs  to  one  caste,  and  the  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers 
of  water  (     )  to  another.  —  W.  J.  Fox. 

The  oddity  has  become  always  odder,  the  paradoxes  (  )  still 
more  paradoxical. — Lowell. 

His  brow  was  wrinkled,  his  lips  (  )  compressed,  his  eyes  (  ) 
full  of  a  terribly  strong  calm. — Kingsley. 

Still  was  her  inward  structure  unchanged,  her  essential  duties 
were  unvaried,  her  course  (  )  pursued  with  equal  success. — Car- 
dinal Wiseman. 

At  present  all  contributions  of  facts  are  to  be  welcomed,  all 
hasty  theorizing  (is  to  be)  encouraged. — Spectator. 

They  were  spreading  his  reputation,  and  every  day  (  )  bring- 
ing new  friends. — J.  T.  McCleunan,  in  Memoirs  of  Thomas  Driun- 
mond. 

Not  only  was  the  watch  discovered,  but  duplicates  {  )  [also] 
found. — Traits  of  Character. 

Public  opinion  is  a  reality  as  solid  to  him  as  the  globe,  its 
phenomena  (  )  as  influential  as  sunshine  and  darkness.  —  W. 
E.  Alger. 


110  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

But  the  young  doctor  cnme,  and  the  old  doctor  came,  and  the 
infants  were  laid  in  cotton-wool,  and  the  room  (  )  heated  up 
to  keep  them  warm,  and  bay-teaspoonfuls  of  milk  (  )  given 
them. — Holmes. 

These  tracts  were  always  kept  lighted,  and  the  expense 
thereof  {     )  defrayed  by  a  special  tax. —  The  Comi-ng  Race. 

The  offenses  against  morality  are  condoned  too  easily,  and 
the  line  between  vice  and  virtue  (  )  drawn  in  accordance  with 
certain  distinctions  which  even  Parson  Adams  could  scarcely 
have  approved. — Leslie  Stephen. 

The  Subject  Limited  by  Adjectives. — AMien  a  sub- 
ject is  limited  by  two  or  more  adjectives,  it  is  in  the 
plural  if  each  adjective  is  preceded  by  an  article,  but  in 
the  singular  if  there  is  but  one  article  used.  Thus, 
"The  logical  and  the  historical  analysis  coincide.'''' 
(There  are  two  analyses.)  "  The  figurative  or  meta- 
phorical expression  has  a  difierent  meaning  from  the 
literal."  Figurative  and  metaphorical  take  but  one  article 
because  they  limit  a  noun  in  the  singular,  which  in  turn 
takes  a  verb  in  the  singular  as  its  predicate. 

Errors  in  the  Number  of  the  Predicate  Verb. 

The  moody  and  savage  state  of  mind  of  the  sullen  and  ambi- 
tious are  [is]  admirably  drawn. — Spectator. 

The  material  and  (the)  mental  world  have  their  points  of 
union,  blending  them  together.  —  IK  J.  Fo.v. 

Note. — Dr.  Hodgson  would  have  this  read  "The  ma- 
terial and  the  mental  worlds  have,"  etc.  This  would 
mean  "The  material  worlds  and  the  mental  worlds," 
which  is  incorrect.  The  word  world  is  understood  after 
the  word  material  in  the  expression,  but  the  article  the 
should  precede  mental,  to  show  that  two  worlds  are 
meant. 

The  expression  "  Vocal  and  instrumental  music  now 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  Ill 

invariably /orm  a  considerable  part  of  tbe  programme," 
which  Dr.  Hodgson  condemns,  is  correct  as  it  stands. 

So,  also,  in  the  following  the  verb  is  correct:  "But 
with  Socrates  moral  and  intellectual  excellence  were  in- 
separable, and  as  he  could  discover  no  security  for  con- 
duct but  knowledge,  so  he  could  find,  in  the  first  instance 
at  least,  no  other  subject  for  knowledge  hut  [than]  hu- 
man conduct." — Saturday  Review. 

The  following  sentences,  given  by  Dr.  Hodgson  in 
Errors  in  the  Use  of  English,  as  illustrations  of  the  incor- 
rect use  of  the  verb,  are  correct,  except  where  noted  by 
the  marks  of  parenthesis : 

Bodily  and  intellectual  labor  vjere  paid  at  the  same  rate  of 
wages. — M.  D.  Conway. 

Sacred  and  profane  wisdom  agree  in  declaring  that  "pride 
goeth  before  a  fall." — Spectator. 

Those  most  important  and  complex  changes  which  political 
and  social  science  have  brought  about. — Sir  H.  Holland. 

To  be  worth  anything,  literary  and  scientific  criticism  require, 
both  of  them,  tbe  finest  heads  and  the  most  sure  [surest]  tact. — 
Matthew  Arnold. 

It  is  not  only  possible,  but  (also)  probable,  that  lay  and  cler- 
ical opinion  are  at  variance. — Manchester  Kraminer. 

It  is  true  that  the  Scotch  and  (the)  English  patronage  are 
two  different  things. — Spectator. 

In  each  of  the  six  foregoing  sentences  a  noun  is  under- 
stood after  the  first  of  each  pair  of  adjectives. 

Distributive  Pronouns  as  Subjects. — The  distribu- 
tive adjective  pronouns,  each,  either,  neither,  when  used 
as  subjects,  require  verbs  and  pronouns  in  the  singular 
number  ;  as,  '"  Each  of  the  boys  has  done  his  duty." 

Indefinite  Pronominal  Adjectives  as  Subjects. — Of 
the  indefinite  pronominal  adjectives,  when  used  as  pro- 
nouns, some  and  all  are  used  in  the  plural ;  one,  other,  and 


112  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

another,  in  the  singular;  and  any  and  none  in  either  the 
singuhir  or  the  plural,  according  to  the  sense  implied  in 
the  sentence. 

Errors  in  the  Use  of  Verbs  having*  Adjective  Pronouns  as 
Subjects. 

It  is  true  that  not  one  of  the  bright  particular  stars  of  Polish 
history  loere  [was]  of  that  line  or  age. — Saturday  Review. 
While  either  of  these  are  [isj  hungry, 
Nor  poppy,  uor  mandragora, 
Nor  all  the  drowsy  syrups  of  the  East 
Will  ever  medicine  them  [him]  to  slumber. — Fielding. 

Neither  of  these  boys  were  [was]  so  remarkable  for  their  [his] 
talents  as  for  (the)  thoroughness  of  their  [his]  work. — Rev.  G. 
Butler. 

In  this  composition  neither  of  the  arms  cross  [crosses]  the 
body. — Lady  Eastlake. 

Neither  of  us  deny  [denies]  that  Homer  and  Virgil  have  great 
beauties. — Blair. 

But  neither  of  these  circumstances  are  [is]  intended  here. — 
Home  Tooke. 

And  yet  neither  of  them  express  [expresses]  any  more  action 
in  this  case  than  they  [he]  did  in  the  other. — Bullions. 

pjach  in  their  [his]  turn  like  Banquo's  monarchs  sto/X'  [stalks]. 
— Byron. 

"Mind,"  says  one,  "soul,"  says  another,  "brain  or  matter," 
says  a  third  ;  but  none  of  these  are  [is]  right. — C.  Bray :  Illu- 
sion and  L)clusion. 

Relative  Pronouns  as  Subjects.  —  Frequent  errors 
occur  in  the  putting  of  a  relative  pronoun  in  the  object- 
ive case  where  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb.  Thus, 
"  I  saw  the  boy  whom  [who]  we  thought  had  gone." 

Errors  in  the  Use  of  Relative  Pronouns  as  Subjects  and 
Predicate  Nominatives. 
Nina  wa.s  annoyed  by  the  presence  of  Mr.  .Jekyl,  whom  [who] 
her  brothers  insisted  should  remain  to  dinner. — Mrs.  H.  B.  Stowe. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  113 

Those  two,  no  matter  who  spoke,  or  ivhom  [who]  was  ad- 
dressed, looked  at  each  other. — Dickens. 

I  oti'er  a  prize  of  six  pairs  [pair]  of  gloves  to  lohovisoever 
[whosoever]  will  tell  me  what  idea  in  this  second  part  is  mine. 
— Dickens. 

The  face  of  the  good  Samaritan  was  written  on  the  face  of 
whomsover  [whosoever]  opens  to  the  stranger. — Miss  AlcoU. 

Why  should  I  be  told  to  serve  Him  if  I  do  not  know  Whom 
[who]  it  is  I  serve? — Florence  Nightingale. 

Pray,  remain  single  and  marry  nobody,  let  him  be  xchom 
[who]  he  may. — Sidney  Smith. 

Milton,  in  his  "  Iconoclastes,"  insolently  wrote,  ■"  I  shall  not 
instance  an  abstruse  author,  wherein  the  king  niigiit  be  less 
conversant,  but  one  whom  [who]  we  well  know  was  the  closest 
companion  of  these  solitudes,  William  Shakespeare." — /.  Dis- 
raeli. 

Friday,  who7n  [who]  he  thinks  would  be  better  than  a  dog, 
and  almost  as  good  as  a  pony. — National  Review. 

I  was  assured  that  if  taken  up  by  English  capitalists,  whom 
[who]  they  seemed  very  anxious  should  buy  and  Avork  them, 
the  mines  would  be  found  highly  remunerative. — King :  Pen- 
nine Alps. 

Relative  Pronouns  to  be  Repeated. —  In  contracted 
sentences,  Avhen  the  case  or  the  government  is  changed, 
the  relative  should  be  repeated.  Thus,  "  The  upper  part 
of  the  house,  of  which  \  know  nothing  and  have  never 
seen,"  should  read  "  which  I  have  never  seen." 

Relative  Pronouns  Improperly  Omitted. 

The  domain  of  the  husband  to  whom  she  felt  that  she  had 
sold  herself,  and  (by  whom  she)  had  been  paid  the  strict  price — 
nay,  paid  more  than  she  had  dared  to  ask. —  George  Eliot,  in 
Daniel  Deronda. 

Originality  in  politics,  as  in  every  field  of  art,  consists  in  the 
use  and  application  of  the  ideas  which  we  get  or  (which)  are 
given  to  us. — Justin  McCarthy. 
8 


114  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

It  is  a  persuasion  which  we  all  smile  at  in  one  another,  and 
(which)  we  all  justify  in  ourselves. — Miss  Martlneau. 

A  man  could  not  sustain  such  a  position ;  it  represents  a  mo- 
mentary action,  which  the  sculptor  must  have  often  seen,  and 
(which)  is  perfectly  true  to  nature. — Lady  Eastlake. 

One  of  the  last  of  his  parliamentary  speeches  was  delivered 
in  defense  of  Warren  Hastings,  with  whom  he  was  on  terms  of 
intimate  friendship,  and  (whom  he)  regarded  as  a  consummate 
statesman,  and  the  savior  of  India.  —  W.  F.  Bae,  in  John  Wilkes. 

While  at  Brussels  he  fought  a  duel  by  moonlight  with  a  Span- 
iard with  whom  he  had  been  gambling,  and  (whom  he)  suspected 
of  cheating  him. — Lady  Jackson,  in  Old  Paris. 

Agreement  in  Tense. — Verbs  connected  by  and^  nor, 
t/ian,  etc.,  and  referring  to  acts  occurring  at  tbe  same 
time,  must  agree  in  tense. 

A  proper  succession  of  tenses  should  be  observed 
where  one  verb  depends  on  another. 

Errors  in  the  Use  of  Tenses. 

It  would  doubtless  have  exhibited  itself  quietly  enough  if  it 
were  [had  been]  absolutely  undiluted. — Justin  McCarthy. 

If  with  equal  force  of  character  his  intellectual  power  had 
been  less,  we  shoidd  feci  [should  have  felt]  the  shock  without 
the  mysterious  attraction. — Leslie  Stephen. 

Very  amusing  and  useful  companions  Dharma  would  have 
found  them,  were  it  not  [had  it  not  been]  for  her  longing  after 
the  woods  and  sea-breezes  of  Cliftclalc. — Dharma,  vol.  iii.,  p. 
290. 

We  can  conceive  no  argument  more  utterly  baseless  than 
that  wliich  assumes  (that)  he  would  have  accomplished  all  he 
has  done,  and  a  great  deal  more,  if  a  different  principle  of 
action  were  [had  been]  substituted  for  that  which,  as  yet,  has 
always  been  the  main-spring  of  his  movements. —  Quarterly 
Review. 

It  is  entirely  reasonable  to  doubt  that  xvere  [had]  temporal 
aid  and  support  also  (been)  offered,  they  would  likewise  have 
been  at  once  thankfully  received. — Rev.  W.  Mcllwaine. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  115 

Ellipsis  of  the  Piincipal  Verb,  —  In  subordinate 
clauses,  in  contracted  sentences,  and  in  answers,  the 
auxiliaries  c/o,  have,  may,  can,  shall,  and  will,  sometimes 
admit  of  an  ellipsis  of  the  principal  verb ;  as,  "  He  never 
did  like  the  work  and  he  never  will." 

An  ellipsis  of  this  kind  is  permissible  only  when  the 
form  of  the  verb  in  one  clause  is  such  that  it  can  be 
repeated  without  change  in  the  other.  Thus,  "  I  have 
not  spoken,  and  I  cannot  (spoken)  "  is  neither  correct 
nor  justifiable. 

Improper  Omission  of  Verbs. 

I  am  anxious  for  the  time  when  he  will  talk  as  much  non- 
sense to  me  as  I  have  (talked)  to  him.  —  W.  S.  Landor. 

Some  part  of  this  exemption  and  liability  may  (be)  and  no 
doubt  is  due  to  mental  or  physical  causes  in  the  unhappy  or 
(in  the)  fortunate  individual. — Spectator. 

Shelley,  like  Byron,  knew  early  what  it  was  [is]  to  love ;  al- 
most all  the  great  poets  have  (known). — Memoirs  of  Shelley. 

She  could  meet  no  one  among  the  lanes  and  (the)  cornfields 
who  could  claim  her  as  had  those  odious  relations  [relatives]  of 
liers  (claimed  her).- — Mrs.  Linton,  in  Sowing  the  Wind. 

But  the  problem  is  one  which  no  research  has  hitherto  solved, 
and  probably  never  will  (solve). — Sir  H.  Holland. 

No  introduction  has  (authorized),  nor  in  all  probability  ever 
will  authorize,  that  which  common  thinkers  would  call  a  lib- 
erty.—P.  B.  Shelley. 

He  ridicules  the  notion  that  truth  will  prevail ;  it  never  has 
(prevailed)  and  it  never  will  (prevail). — Leslie  Stephen. 

I  never  have  (attacked)  and  (I)  never  will  attack  a  man  for 
speculative  opinion. — H.  T.  Buckle. 

Disjoined  Subjects. — When  a  subject  in  the  singular 
number  is  connected  with  another  noun  or  pronoun  by 
with  instead  of  and,  the  verb  should  have  the  singular 
form.  Thus,  "  The  house  and  its  contents  loere  burned," 
but  "The  house,  with  its  contents,  icas  burned." 


116  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Where  plurality  is  signified,  as  "  the  house  and  the 
barn,"  it  is  better  to  use  and  rather  than  with. 

Errors  in  the  Use  of  Verbs  with  Disjoined  Subjects. 

My  syinpatliy  with  him  in  this  ill-usage,  along  with  my  ad- 
miration for  his  fortitude  and  generosity,  7cere  [was]  the  hegin- 
ning  of  the  great  affection  that  I  afterward  had  for  liim. — Hope: 
Stories  of  Ideal  Life. 

Poor  Mrs.  B's  crippled  baby,  with  all  his  many  other  failures, 
were  [was]  at  once  forgotten  by  his  patience. — John  HoUiiKjs- 
head,  in  Ways  of  Life. 

The  amount  of  discussion  which  finds  utterance  in  the  poem, 
equally  with  the  valuable  analysis  of  mental  phenomena,  are 
[is]   nothing  less  than  startling. — H.  B.  Forman. 

The  electric  light,  with  ])owerful  reflectors,  are  [is]  the  means 
to  be  employed. — Newspaper. 

When  Leonidas,  the  Spartan  king,  with  [and]  his  chosen 
band  fighting  for  their  country,  were  cut  ofl'  to  the  last  man. — 
Karnes'  Elements  of  Criticism. 

And  a  considerable  village,  with  gardens,  fields,  etc.,  extend 
[extends]  around  on  each  side  of  the  square. — Liberator. 
The  spacious  firmament  on  high, 
With  all  the  blue  ethereal  sky, 
And  spangled  heavens,  a  shining  frame, 
Their  great  Original  proclaim,  Iprocliiima].— Addison. 

The  side  A  B,  with  the  side  BC,form  [forms]  a  right  angle. 
—  Geometry. 

The  bag,  with  the  money  and  the  checks  in  it,  were  [was] 
stol  en . — Newspaper. 

The  King,  xoith  [and]  the  Lords  and  (the)  Commons,  consti- 
tute an  excellent  form  of  government. — Crombie's  Treatise. 

The  Concord  of  "There." — Either  a  singular  or  a 
])lural  verb  may  follow  tJwrc  introducing  a  sentence, 
according  to  the  number  of  the  noun  used  as  the  sub- 
ject of  the  sentence. 

Dr.  Abbott  cites  thirty-two  pas.sages  from  Shakespeare 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  •  117 

in  which  "  There  is,"  "  There  was,"  etc.,  singular  forms, 
are  followed  by  plural  subjects,  or  two  or  more  singular 
subjects.  But  this  is  not  in  accordance  with  good  usage, 
nor  should  this  bad  example  be  imitated. 

Errors  in  the  Concord  of  There. 

On  the  table  there  was  [were]  neatly  and  handily  arranged 
two  long  pipes.  —  James  Greenwood,  in  Unsentimental  Jour- 
neys. 

There  exists  [exist]  sometimes  only  in  germ  and  potentiality, 
sometimes  more  or  less  developed,  the  same  tendencies  and  pas- 
sions ivhich  [that]  have  made  our  fellow-citizens  of  other  classes 
what  they  are. — Matthew  Arnold. 

There  is  [are]  such  malice,  treachery,  and  dissimulation,  even 
among  professed  friends  and  intimate  companions,  as  cannot 
fail  to  strike  a  virtuous  mind  with  horror. — Smollett. 

Although  the  market  traffic  had  not  yet  commenced,  there 
was  [were]  considerable  noise  and  confusion. — James  Green- 
wood. 

There  was  [were]  the  buoyancy  of  spirit,  the  undoubting  con- 
fidence, that  the  riddle  of  the  universe  had  at  last  been  satis- 
factorily solved,  and  the  power  of  seizing  the  picturesque  and 
striking  aspects  of  things,  and  embodying  abstract  theories  in 
vivid  symbols,  which  marks  [mark]  the  second  order  of  intel- 
lects.— Leslie  Stephen. 

There  was  [were]  about  her  the  brilliancy  of  courts  and  pal- 
aces, the  enchantment  of  a  love-story,  the  suffering  of  a  victim 
of  despotic  power. — Madame  Bonaparte. 

Surely  there  is  [are]  both  grandeur  and  eloquence  in  his 
apostrophe  to  the  atheists  whom  [who]  he  knew  abounded  in 
Louis  XIV. 's  Court,  and  whom  he  warned  that  their  eternity 
was  an  inevitable  fact. — Bossuet  and  his  Companions. 

Error  of  Proximity.  —  Frequently  the  subject  of  a 
sentence  is  obscured  by  the  intervention  of  two  or  more 
prepositional  phrases  or  dependent  clauses  between  the 
subject  and  the  verb  agreeing  with  it. 


118  •  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Errors  of  Proximity. 

I  have  no  feeling  connected  with  my  general  recollection  of 
them,  but  those  to  which  the  combination  of  good  sense,  wit, 
and  genius  naturally  give  [gives]  rise. — Sydney  Smith. 

A  moral  and  honorable  mode  of  action  and  thought  are  [is] 
enforced  as  a  duty. — Mayhew :   German  Life. 

If  a  man's  conscience  is  either  crotchety,  superstitious,  or 
cowardly,  this  is  positive  proof  that  the  man  himself  must 
have  been  either  false,  idle,  or  cowardly  in  his  thoughts,  and 
some  degree  of  disappointment  and  contempt  are  [is]  the  appro- 
priate punishments  [punishment]  for  these  offenses. — Saturday 
Review. 

The  game  was  played  out,  and  the  end  was  come  [had  come], 
as  the  end  of  such  matters  generally  come  [comes],  by  gradual 
decay,  petty  disaster,  and  mistakes. — Kiugsley. 

A  sojourn  of  five  years  in  the  military  hospitals,  camps,  and 
towns  of  Algeria  have  [has]  originated  and  strengthened  these 
opinions. — Miss  M.  B.  Edwards. 

Culture  points  out  that  the  harmonious  perfection  of  genera- 
tions of  Puritans  and  Nonconformists  have  [has]  been  in  conse- 
quence sacrificed. — Af.  Arnold. 

The  introduction  of  such  beverages  as  tea  and  coffee  have  [has] 
not  been  without  their  [its]  effects.  —  Westminster  Review. 

On  the  tenant  [tenant's]  being  ejected,  the  unexhausted  value 
of  the  unpaid  manures  go  [goes]  to  the  landlord. — Scotch  Agri- 
cultural Re])ort. 

M.  Guizot's  republication  of  some  of  his  more  important 
political  essays,  written  at  intervals  during  a  period  of  fifty 
years,  are  [is]  interesting  at  the  present  time.  —  Westminster 
Review. 

The  opposition  of  interests  which  we  have  spoken  of  refer 
[refers]  only  to  variations  in  the  relative  magnitude  of  those 
portions  or  shares  into  which  wealth  is  distributed. — Fawcctt : 
Manual  of  Political  Economy. 

As  lias  been  stated  already,  the  severity  of  the  symptoms  were 
[was]  no  criterion  of  the  severity  of  the  disease. — A.  GriJ/lths: 
Memorial  of  Millbun/:. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  119 

The  franslaflon  of  specimens  of  the  "  Recent  French  Poets," 
by  Arthur  O'Shaughnessy,  are  [has  been]  very  brightly  done. — 
Guardian. 

The  inferior  number  of  red  particles  in  their  blood  do  [docs] 
not  make  women  the  political  inferiors  of  men. — Frof.  T.  C. 
Leslie. 

Nothing  but  dreary  dikes,  muddy  and  straight,  guarded  by 
the  ghosts  of  suicidal  pollards,  and  by  rows  of  dreary  and  des- 
olate mills,  occur  [occurs]  to  break  the  blank  gray  monotony  of 
the  landscape. — F.  W.  Farrar :  St.  Winifred. 

"Than"  as  a  Connective. — Than,  as  a  conjunction, 
is  used  to  connect  sentences ;  as,  "  He  is  older  than  I " 
(am  old).  Dr.  Hodgson  and  some  others  take  the 
ground  that  tJian  must  connect  Hke  cases,  nominative 
with  nominative,  and  objective  with  objective.  Thus, 
they  would  condemn  the  following  sentence  from  Kings- 
ley's  Westivard  Ho :  "  Think  not  of  me,  good  fellows,  nor 
talk  of  me ;  but  come  behind  me  decently,  as  Christian 
men,  and  follow  to  the  grave  the  body  of  a  better  than 
I  "  and  change  the  /  to  me,  on  the  ground  that  the  con- 
junction connects  the  noun  man  in  the  objective  with 
the  pronoun  /,  which  they  claim  should  also  be  in  the 
objective  case. 

The  conjunction  than  connects  sentences  here  as  else- 
where, and  the  sentence  means,  "  Follow  to  the  grave  a 
better  man  than  I  "  (am  good),  and  it  is  correct  as  writ- 
ten by  Mr.  Kingsley. 

So  also  the  following  from  Dickens,  which  Dr.  Hodg- 
son condemns,  is  correct:  "The  smooth  manner  of  the 
spy,  cautiously  in  dissonance  with  his  ostentatiously 
rough  dress,  and  probably  with  his  usual  demeanor, 
received  such  a  check  from  the  inscrutability  of  Carton, 
who  was  a  mystery  to  wiser  and  honester  men  than  lie, 
that  it  faltered  here,  and  failed  him." 


120  GOOD  ENGLISH. 


Errors  in  Case  with  "Than"  as  a  Connective. 

I'll  tell  you  what,  brother  Frank,  you  are  a  great  deal  wiser 
than  me  [I],  I  know,  but  I  can't  abide  to  see  you  turn  up  your 
nose,  as  it  were,  at  God's  good  earth. — Kingsleij. 

He  must  be  a  wiser  man  than  me  [Ij  who  can  tell  what  ad- 
vantage or  satisfaction  he  derives  from  having  brought  such  a 
nest  of  hornets  about  his  ears. — Smollett. 


Infinitives. 

A  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode  is  not  limited  b}^  person 
or  number. 

It  may  be  used  as  a  noun  in  either  tlie  nominative  or 
the  objective  case. 

It  may  be  used  also  as  a  modilier  of  an}^  })art  of 
speech  except  an  article,  a  preposition,  a  conjunction, 
or  an  interjection. 

Wlien  the  infinitive  is  used  as  a  noun,  it  may  still  be 
modified  as  a  verb. 

The  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode  is  sometimes  used 
independently ;  as,  "  To  confess  the  truth,  I  forgot  the 
date." 

The  infinitive  of  an  intransitive  verb,  or  of  a  transi- 
tive verb  in  the  passive  voice,  may  be  followed  b_y  a 
noun  or  a  pronoun  used  independently;  as,  "To  become 
a  successful  man  requires  industr\\" 

The  infinitive  after  a  Avord  of  command  is  usually 
preceded  by  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  objective  case; 
as,  "  We  ordered  him  to  come,"  the  wliole  expression 
being  the  object  of  the  finite  verb  ordered. 

The  sign  to  must  not  be  se])arated  from  the  remaining 
part  of  the  infinitive  l)y  an  intervening  word.  'J'hus, 
"He  tried  finallv  to  i»ay,"  not  "lie  tried  to  finally 
pay." 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  121 

After  the  active  voice  of  the  verbs  hid  (to  command), 
see,  feel,  hear,  let,  make,  dare  (to  venture),  and  verbs  of 
similar  meaning,  as  ivatch,  behold,  etc.,  the  sign  to  of  the 
infinitive  is  omitted  ;  as,  "  See  him  go ;"  "  Let  ns  play." 

The  sign  to  is  occasionall}'^  used  after  a  few  of  the 
foregoing  words  when  they  are  emphatic;  as,  "Barest 
thou  to  beard  the  lion  in  his  den?" 

The  infinitive  sign  to  should  never  be  used  for  the  full 
form.  Thus,  "  I  did  not  go  because  I  did  not  want  to," 
should  be  "  I  did  not  go  because  I  did  not  want  to  go." 

When  the  action,  being,  or  state,  expressed  by  the 
infinitive,  is  present  or  future  as  compared  with  that 
expressed  by  the  verb  which  it  limits,  the  present  tense 
of  the  infinitive  is  used.  Thus,  "I  expected  to  come;" 
that  is,  I  expected  at  that  time  to  come  then  or  in  the 
future. 

When  the  action,  being,  or  state,  expressed  by  the 
infinitive,  is  past  as  compared  with  that  expressed  by 
the  verb  which  it  limits,  the  present  perfect  tense  of  the 
infinitive  is  used.  Tlius,  "  Cresar  seems  (present  time) 
to  have  been  (past  time)  ambitious." 

Verbs  expressing  hope,  intention,  desire,  command,  or 
expectation,  are  followed  by  the  present  tense  of  the 
infinitive. 

Errors  in  the  Use  of  the  Infinitive. 

There  are  several  faults  whicli  I  intended  to  have  mentioned 
[to  mention].  —  Wel)ster. 

They  hoped  to  have  met  [to  meet]  each  other. — Newspaper. 

So  as  neither  to  embarrass  nor  (to)  weaken  each  other. — 
Blnir. 

Their  character  is  found  and  made  (to)  appear. — Butter's 
Analogy. 

He  wanted  to  go,  but  he  liad  no  opportunity  to  (go). — News- 
paper. 


122  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

He  was  made  (to)  believe  that  neither  the  king's  death  nor 
(his)  imprisonment  would  help  him. — Shrffield's  Works. 

He  can  show  his  moral  courage  only  by  daring  (to)  do  right. 
—  Goold  Broum. 

The  bulls  of  Guisando  are  two  vast  statues  remaining  in  that 
town  ever  since  the  time  of  the  Romans,  supposed  to  be  [to  have 
been]  set  up  by  Metellus. — Lovkharfs  Don  Qui.vofe. 

We  ought  not  to  try  and  [toj  define  God. —  Taine. 

They  would  not  say  that  the  facts  stated  in  the  indictment 
would  have  been  fully  sufKcient  to  have  warranted  [to  warrant] 
the  judge  to  have  directed  [to  direct],  and  the  jury  to  have  given 
[to  give],  a  general  verdict. — Lord  Erskine. 

(Better,  "  Fully  sufficient  to  warrant  the  judge  in  directing 
the  jury  to  give,"  etc.) 

I  found  him  better  than  I  expected  to  have  fotuid  [to  find] 
bim. — Priestley's  Grammar. 

I  meant,  when  I  first  came,  to  have  hourjld  [to  buy]  it. — Sydney 
Smith. 

It  has  been  my  intention  to  have  collected  [to  collect]  the  rem- 
nants of  Keats'  compositions. — Shelley. 

I  intended  to  have  insisted  [to  insist]  on  this  sympathj'  at 
greater  length. — Eusklii. 

Friendships  which  we  once  hoped  and  believed  would  never 
have  (jroivn  [grow]  cold. — F.  W.  Farrar :  Julian  Home. 

Could  I  have  chosen  my  own  period  of  the  world  to  have  lived 
[to  live]  in,  and  my  own  type  of  life,  it  shoidd  be  [would  have 
been]  the  feudal  age,  and  the  life  of  the  Cid,  the  redresser  of 
wrongs. — Eev.  F.  W.  Eobertson. 

I  had  hoped  never  to  have  seen  [to  see]  the  statues  again  when 
I  missed  them  on  the  bridge. — Macaulay. 

He  paid  me  many  compliments  upon  my  sermon  against  bad 
husbands,  so  that  it  is  clear  he  intended  to  have  made  [to  make] 
a  very  good  one. — Sydney  Smith. 

We  should  have  thought  that  the  Bi-shop  might  have  been 
contented  to  have  pointed  [to  point]  out  that  to  nations,  as  to 
individuals,  selfishness  is  its  own  worst  punishment. — Spectator. 

We  hapjiened  to  have  been  [to  be]  present  on  the  occasiou. — 
Mayhew :   German  Life. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  123 

We  would  have  liked  to  have  read  [to  read]  it  to  Isola ;  it 
would  have  been  pleasant  to  have  heard  [to  hear]  his  own  voice 
giving  due  emphasis  to  the  big  words. — Mrs._Lynn  Linton: 
Sowing  the  Wind. 

If  he  had  lived  longer,  it  would  have  been  difficult  for  him  to 
have  kept  [to  keep]  the  station  to  which  he  had  risen. — //.  L. 
Bulwer,  in  Historical  Characters. 

That  the  mind  may  not  have  to  go  backwards  and  forwards 
in  order  to  rightly  correct  [rightly  to  correct]  them. — Herbert 
Spencer. 

I  wish  the  reader  to  clearly  widerstand  [to  understand  clearly]. 
— Rusk  in. 

Transactions  which  seem  to  be  most  widely  separated  [to  be 
separated  most  widely]  from  one  another. — Dr.  Blair. 

The  ladies  seem  to  have  been  expressly  created  [to  have  been 
created  expressly]  to  form  helps  meet  for  such  gentlemen. — 
Macaulay. 

The  spirits,  therefore,  of  those  opposed  to  them  seemed  to  be 
considerably  damped  [to  be  damped  considerably]  by  their  con- 
tinued success. — Scott. 

That  virtue  which  requires  to  be  ever  guarded  [to  be  guarded 
ever]  is  scarcely  worth  the  sentinel. —  Goldsmith. 

In  works  of  art,  this  kind  of  grandeur,  which  consists  in  mul- 
titude, is  to  be  very  cautiously  guarded  [to  be  guarded  very  cau- 
tiously] . — Burke. 

Sufficient  to  disgust  a  people  whose  manners  were  beginning 
to  be  strongly  tinctured  [to  be  tinctured  strongly]  with  austerity. 
— Macaulay. 

Participles. 

A  Participle  partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  verb  and  of 
an  adjective. 

When  a  participle  is  used  as  a  noun  it  may  be  in 
either  the  nominative  or  the  objective  case,  and  be  mod- 
ified in  all  respects  like  a  verb. 

A  participle  used  as  a  noun  may  be  limited  by  a  pos- 
sessive;  as,  "il/^  dayinrj  did  not  interfere  with  their  run- 
ning.^' 


124  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

A  participle  may  be  followed  by  a  noun  or  a  pronoun 
used  independently;  as,  "My  being  a  minister  gained  uie 
ready  entrance." 

The  perfect  participle,  and  not  the  past  tense,  is  used 
•with  the  auxiliaries  have  and  be  in  the  ditferent  modes 
and  tenses.  Thus,  "  ^^'e  had  gone;"  "We  have  writ- 
ten ;"  "  They  have  been  singing." 

The  past  tense,  and  not  the  participle,  should  be 
used  to  express  past  time.  Thus,  "We  went;"  "We 
wrote." 

When  the  participle  is  preceded  by  the,  and  generally 
when  it  is  preceded  by  an  adjective,  it  is  followed  by  of; 
as,  "  The  curbing  of  the  temper  is  necessary." 

The  placing  of  a  participial  phrase  should  be  such  as 
to  make  clear  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  in  which  it  is 
found. 

A  participle  should  not  be  used  when  the  infinitive 
mode,  a  common  noun,  or  a  phrase  equivalent,  will 
better  express  the  meaning.  Thus,  "The  planting  of 
a  tree  is  evidence  of  a  love  of  beauty,"  is  better  than 
"Planting  a  tree  is  evidence,"  etc. 

Errors  in  the  Use  of  Participles. 

In  llie  choice  they  had  made  of  him,  for  (the)  restoring  of 
order. — RolUn's  History. 

In  (the)  punishing  of  this  we  overthrow 

The  laws  of  nations  and  of  nature  too. — Dnjden. 

It  is  the  giving  (of)  different  names  of  the  same  object. — 
Kaynes. 

The  keeping  (of)  juries  without  meat,  drink,  or  fire,  can  be 
accounted  for  only  on  the  same  idea.  —  Wcb.''ter^s  Essays. 

And  yet  the  confining  (of)  themselves  to  this  true  principle 
has  misled  them. — Home  Tooke. 

AVhich  require  only  the  doing  (of)  an  external  action. — But- 
ler's Analogy. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  125 

Miraculous  curing  (of)  the  sick  is  discontinued. — Barclay's 
Works. 

Never  attemi>t  pro/on jhig  [to  prolong]  the  pathetic  too  much. 
— Blair. 

But  Artaxerxes  could  not  refuse  pardonhig  [to  pardon]  them. 
—  Goldsmil/i's  Greece. 

You  have  proved  beyond  contradiction,  that  acting  [to  act] 
thus  is  the  sure  way  to  procure  such  an  object. — CampbclFs 
Rhetoric. 

And  sound  sleep  thus  broke  [broken]  off,  with  sudden  alarms, 
is  apt  enough  to  discompose  anj'  one. — Locke. 

Garcilasso  was  master  of  the  language  sp)oke  [spoken]  by  the 
Incas. — Robertson's  America. 

When  an  interesting  story  is  broke  [broken]  off  in  the  middle. 
— Karnes. 

I  assure  you  therefore  seriously,  and  upon  my  honor,  that  the 
carrying  (of)  this  point  seems  essential  to  the  success  of  this 
measure.  —  W.  J.  Fox. 

I  suppose  her  knowledge  of  the  Emperor  [Emperor's]  having 
left  nothing  to  his  son  induced  her  to  make  such  a  will. — 
Madame  Bonaparte. 

A  hammer  is  the  cause  of  the  nail  [nail's]  being  driven. — 
Haven. 

Is  not  the  bare  fact  of  Gud  [God's]  being  the  witness  of  it  suffi- 
cient ground  for  its  credibility  to  rest  upon  ? — Chalmers'  Sermons. 

As  in  the  case  of  one  [one's]  entering  ujjon  a  new  study. — 
Beattie's  Moral  Science. 

From  the  general  rule  he  lays  down,  of  the  verbs  [verbs'] 
being  the  parent  word  of  all  language. — Home  Tooke. 

Adverbs. 

Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  participles,  and  other 
adverbs. 

Adverbs  may  also  modify  phrases  or  clauses  that  per- 
form the  office  of  adjectives  or  adverbs.  Thus,  in  the 
sentence,  "  The  road  crosses  the  creek  just  below  the 


126  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

city,"  the  adverb  just  does  not  modify  the  preposition 
below^  as  is  stated  by  some  writers  on  grammar,  but  it 
modifies  the  adverbial  phrase  "  below  the  city." 

"The  bird  flew  directly  over  the  house ;^^  "The  orchard 
is  just  beyond  the  m.eadow  f^  "I  was  sixnck  just  beloiv  the 
ei/e,"  are  similar  sentences  in  wliich  directly  and  just 
modify  prepositional  phrases  used  as  adverbial  modi- 
fiers. 

Adverbs  when  not  modifiers  may  be  used  independ- 
ently, as  the  italicised  words  in  the  following: 

Well,  are  you  ready  ? 

There  were  six  in  the  carriage. 

Now,  let  us  start. 

The  words  ycs^  yea,  ay,  no,  nay,  when  used  in  answer 
to  questions,  are  usually  equivalent  to  propositions. 
They  may  be  parsed  as  adverbs  used  independent!}'. 
The  word  amen  may  be  parsed  in  the  same  manner. 

Such  expressions  as  "  Up  with  "  and  "  Down  with  " 
are  properly  complex  verbs. 

Adverbial  phrases  should  be  parsed  as  single  expres- 
sions only  when  the  words  of  which  they  consist  cannot 
be  parsed  separately. 

A  conjunctive  adverb  not  only  connects  two  clauses, 
but  it  also  modifies  a  verb  in  each  clause. 

The  independent  adverb  there  is  by  some  grammarians 
called  an  expletive. 

In  such  expressions  as  "  scalding  hot,"  "  freezing  cold," 
"dripping  wet,"  the  words  scalding,  freezing,  dripping,  are 
adverbs  used  to  modify  the  adjectives  whicli  ibllow 
them. 

The  word  the  is  an  adverb  when  it  modifies  an  adjec- 
tive or  another  adverb,  as  in  "  'The  deeper  the  well,  the 
cooler  the  water;"  "  The  more  I  study,  the  better  I  like  it." 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  127 

When  simple  quality  is  to  be  expressed  an  adjective, 
and  not  an  adverb,  should  be  used ;  as, 

"  The  rose  smells  sweets 
"  The  lady  looks  beauti/uL" 
"  I  feel  bad:' 

Adverbs  should  be  so  placed  as  to  show  clearly  what 
words  they  modify.  Thus,  "  I  have  only  one,"  not  "  I 
only  have  one." 

As  suggested  in  the  discussion  of  infinitives,  an  adverb 
should  not  be  placed  between  to  and  the  remainder  of 
the  infinitive. 

Special  care  must  be  taken  to  place  the  adverbs  only, 
chiefly,  merely,  solely,  and  others  of  a  similar  signification 
in  such  a  position  that  tlie  meaning  of  the  sentence  may 
not  be  misunderstood.  Thus,  "  He  chiefly  spoke  for  our 
entertainment,"  should  be  "  He  spoke  chiefly  for  our  en- 
tertainment," in  which  chiefly  modifies  the  phrase  "  for 
our  entertainment." 

No  as  an  adverb  can  modify  comparatives  only;  as, 
no  longer,  no  better,  no  more.  It  should  not  be  used  as  a 
substitute  for  not,  as  in  "  I  do  not  know  whether  I  shall 
go  or  no  [not]." 

The  adverb  ever,  when  it  follows  such  words  as  rarely 
and  seldom,  is  preceded  by  /f ;  as,  "  Rarely,  if  ever ;" 
"Seldom,  if  ever;"  but  the  adverb  never  in  such  cases 
is  preceded  by  or;  as,  "Rarely,  or  never;"  "Seldom,  or 
never."     All  these  are  correct  English  expressions. 

When  negation  is  intended,  but  one  negative  adverb 
should  be  used ;  as,  "  We  have  nothing  to  give ;"  but 
when  affirmation  is  intended,  not  may  be  used  before  a 
word  having  a  negative  prefix ;  as,  "  He  was  not  disqual- 
ified ;"  "They  were  not  dissatisfied." 

The  adverb  how  and  the  words  hoiv  that  should  not  be 


128  GOOD  EXGLISH. 

used  as  substitutes  for  the  word  that  in  adding  a  sub- 
ordinate clause  ;  thus,  "  They  said  that  he  must  be  pun- 
ished," not  "/toif  that  he  must  be  punished." 

From  should  not  be  used  before  the  words  hnicc,  ichcnce, 
thence,  as  it  is  ah-eady  implied  in  these  words.  Thus, 
whence  means  "  from  where,"  and//-097i  ichence  must  mean 
"  from  from  Avhere." 

Where  and  ivhen  should  not  be  used  as  substitutes  for 
ivhich  and  its  adjuncts  when  meaning  place  or  time. 
Thus,  "  I  have  forgotten  the  name  of  the  town  where 
they  live,"  should  be  "in  which  they  live."  Also,  "The 
year  when  this  took  place,"  should  be  "The  year  in  which 
this  took  place." 

Avoid  the  use  of  hnost  [ov  almost,  'icay  for  away,  iJhj  lor 
ill,  and  dircdhj  for  as  soon  as.  Tliere  is  no  such  word  as 
ilhj. 

Some  writers  on  grammar  olyect  to  the  use. of  the 
word  lihc  as  a  conjunctive  adverb,  as  in  the  sentence 
"The  bird  flies  like  a  swallow."  They  claim  that  as 
should  be  substituted  for  lihe  in  all  such  cases.  But 
there  are  many  sentences  in  which  such  a  substitution 
would  be  misleading,  and  therefore  incorrect.  Notice 
the  difference  of  meaning  caused  by  the  reconstruction 
of  Byron's  sentence, 

a.  "The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf  on  the  ibid;" 

b.  "The  Assyrian  came  down  as  a  wolf,"  etc. 

In  the  first  and  correct  form  of  the  sentence  the  mean- 
ing is,  "The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf  (comes 
down)  on  the  fold." 

In  the  second  form,  "  The  Assyrian  came  down  as  a 
wolf,"  etc.,  the  Assyrian  is  made  to  assume  the  character 
of  a  wolf,  a  thought  wholly  foreign  to  the  intention  of 
the  author. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  129 

In  the  following  sentences  no  question  can  arise  as  to 
the  propriety  of  using  like  as  a  conjunctive  adverb : 

a.  Satan  goeth  about  like  a  roaring  lion  (goeth  about),  seek- 
ing whom  he  may  devour. — Bible. 

b.  Sail  like  my  pinnace  (sails)  to  these  golden  shores. — Shake- 
speare. 

c.  I  have  ventured, 
Like  little  wanton  boys  that  swim  on  bladders  (venture), 
This  many  summers  in  a  sea  of  glory. — Shakespeare. 

d.  Like  one  (stands)  in  prayer  I  stood. — Longfellow. 

e.  The  cattle  are  grazing, 
Their  heads  never  raising, 

There  are  forty  feeding  like  one  (feeds).  —  Wordsworth. 

f.  Since  I  may  say,  now  lie  I  like  a  king  (lies). — Shakespeare. 

g.  Spreading  himself  like  a  green  bay  tree  (sj^reads  itself). — 
Psalms. 

h.  Like  the  dew  on  the  mountain  (     ), 

Like  the  foam  on  the  river  (     ), 

Like  the  bubble  on  the  fountain  (     ), 
Thou  art  gone  and  forever. — Scott. 
i.  [The  sound]   rang  in  his  ears  like  the  iron  hoofs  of  the 
steeds  of  Time  (ring). — Longfellow. 

j.  Goodman  Brown  came  into  the  street  of  Salem  village 
staring  like  a  bewildered  man  (stares). — Hawthorne. 

Sometimes  when  tlie  verb  is  expressed  in  the  subordi- 
nate clause,  as  or  as  if  takes  the  place  of  like  as  the  con- 
nective; as,  "I  do  with  my  friends  as  I  do  with  my 
books." — Emerson. 

One  author  on  grammar  sa3^s  that  like  must  not  be 
followed  by  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  nominative 
case;  but  it  always  is  so  followed  when  the  verb  in 
the  principal  clause  expresses  action. 

Another  writer  on  grammar  makes  the  very  positive 
statement  that  like  is  never  a  conjunction,  and  therefore 
it  cannot  be  used  instead  of  as  to  introduce  a  clause. 


130  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Tiiis  autlior  claims  tliat  it  is  incorrect  to  say  "Run  like 
1  run,"  but  that  we  may  say  ''  He  runs  like  nie,"  in 
which  of  course  like  is  considered  an  adjective  or  an 
adverb.  But  the  verb  runs  being  active,  and  actions 
being  compared,  the  true  meaning  of  the  sentence  is, 
"  He  runs  like  me  runs,"  or,  corrected,  "  He  runs  like  I 
(run) ;"  and  "'  like  "  clearly  performs  the  office  of  both 
conjunction  and  adverb,  and  is  therefore  a  conjunctive 
adverb. 

Another  author,  in  sentences  such  as  "  He  walks  like 
I  walk,"  pronounces  like  a  subordinate  conjunction  of 
manner.  This  is  at  least  a  new  but  wholly  unnecessary 
division  of  conjunctions,  which  is  already  covered  by 
the  term  conjunctive  adverb,  as  the  office  of  the  word  is 
not  that  of  a  conjunction  alone  nor  that  of  an  adverb, 
but  of  both. 

Like  is  used  also  as  an  adjective,  in  which  case  a  prep- 
osition seems  to  be  understood  after  the  word  "like  "  in 
sentences  expressing  a  comparison  ;  Thus, 

"The  boy  was  like  (unto)  his  father." 

"  Wh.it  though  my  winged  hours  of  bliss  have  been, 

Like  (     )  angels'  visits,  few  and  far  between." — Campbell. 
"  The  boy  looks  li/cc  [resembles]  his  father." 

The  distinction  between  the  use  of  like  as  a  conjunc- 
tive adverb  and  as  an  adjective  is — 

1.  That  like  as  a  conjunctive  adverb  compares  actions  ; 
as,  "She  sings  like  an  angel  (sings);"  whereas  like  as  an 
adjective  compares  objects;  as,  ^'John  is  like  his  father  f^ 
"The  school  is  like  a  government;^''  ^^  She  looks  like  her 
mother.''^ 

2.  When  like  is  used  as  a  conjunctive  adverb  it  is  pre- 
ceded by  a  verb  denoting  action,  and  the  same  verb  may 
be  taken  as  the  predicate  of  the  chiuse  following;  as, 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  131 

"  He  runs  like  a  deer  (runs) ;"  "  You  act  like  a  child 
(acts)." 

When  like  is  used  as  an  adjective  in  sentences  ex- 
pressing comparison,  the  verb  in  the  principal  clause, 
preceding  like.,  does  not  express  action;  as,  "There  is 
no  statue  like  this  living  man." 

3.  Like  as  a  conjunctive  adverb  connects  clauses  of  a 
complex  sentence,  and  is  followed  by  a  noun  or  a  pro- 
noun in  the  noniinative  case,  used  as  the  subject  of  the 
subordinate  clause. 

In  sentences  where  like  is  used  as  an  adjective  it  is 
part  of  the  predicate  of  the  simple  sentence  in  Avhich  it 
is  found,  and  is  followed  b_y  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the 
objective  case;  as,  "He  is  like  (  )  me;"  "He  is  not 
unlike  (     )  his  father." 

The  examples  given  show  that  it  is  entirely  in  accord- 
ance with  the  best  of  authority  to  use  like  as  a  conjunc- 
tive adverb  with  a  nominative  case  following,  or  as  an 
adjective  with  an  objective  following. 

Such  sentences  as  "  He  talks  like  her "  and  "  She 
walks  like  me,"  can  mean  only  "  He  talks  like  her 
talks  "  and  "  She  walks  like  me  walks,"  and  are  gross 
violations  of  one  of  the  simplest  principles  of  grammar. 

Sometimes  the  adjective  form  of  a  verl)  is  used  ad- 
verbially ;  as,  "  The  swallow  sings  sweet  from  her  nest  in 
the  wall."  Tliis  is  usually  done  in  poetry  to  make  the 
meter  correct. 

Adverbs  consisting  of  two  or  more  words  not  united 
may  be  regarded  as  complex  adverbs ;  as,  by  and  by, 
upside  down,  now  and  then. 

Adverbs  consisting  of  two  or  more  words  united  may 
be  regarded  as  compound  adverbs ;  as,  somchoiv,  helter- 
skelter,  topsy-turv]/. 

Far,  farther,  farthest,  relate  to  distance,  and  may  be 


132  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

used  either  as  adjectives;  as,  "  It  is  farther  to  Asia  than 
to  Europe ;"  or  as  adverbs ;  as,  "  I  have  gone  farther 
than  you." 

Forth,  further,  furtJicd,  are  used  when  meaning  "  some- 
thing additional ;"  as,  "  I  have  nothing  further  to  say  ;" 
"Are  there  any  further  arguments  to  be  offered?" 

Errors  in  the  Use  of  Adverbs. 

Most  men  dream,  but  all  do  not  [not  all  doj. — Beattie. 

By  hasty  comp(jsition  we  shall  acquire  ccrtainhj  [certainly 
acquire]  a  very  bad  style. — Blair. 

AVe  have  often  occasion  [often  have  occasion]  to  speak  of  time. 
— Lowth. 

Whether  it  can  be  proved  or  7io  [not]  is  not  the  thing. — Bui- 
ler's  Analog;/. 

Can  I  make  men  live  whether  they  will  or  no  [not]  ? — Sliake- 
spearc.   ! 

"Which  is  scarce  [scarcely]  possible  at  least. — Sheridan's  Elo- 
cution. 

What  need  is  there  that  I  should  say  anything  farther 
[further]  on  this  question? — Popular  Lecturer. 

Shall  we  have  any  farther  [further]  discussion? — Superintend- 
ents Address. 

They  will,  too,  not  mcrchj  interest  [interest  not  merely]  the 
children,  but  (also)  grown-up  persons.  —  Westminster  Review. 

Homer  was  not  onhj  the  maker  [the  maker  not  only]  of  a 
nation,  but  (also)  of  a  language  and  of  a  religion. — Athe- 
noeum. 

We  were  onbj  permitted  1o  stop  for  refreshments  [|)crmitte(l  to 
stop  for  refreshments  only]  once  by  the  way,  so  that  without 
the  provision  of  cold  fowl,  bread,  and  wafers,  which  we  only 
happened  to  think  of  [happened  to  think  of  only]  the  moment 
before  setting  out,  our  situation  would  have  been  somewhat 
deplorable. — Mrs.  Ellis :  Summer  and  Winter  hi  the  Pijrenees. 

The  result  is  not  pleasant  to  iis  onlij  [pleasant  to  us  not  oidy] 
because  it  fulfills  our  predictions,  but  (also)  because  any  other 
would  have  been  productive  of  infinite  mischief — Spectator. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  133 

We  seldom  or  ever  [if  ever]  see  those  forsaken  wlio  trust  in 
God. — Atterbury. 

In  considering  the  life  of  Seneca  we  are  not  only  dealing 
[dealing  not  only]  with  a  life  which  was  rich  in  memorable 
incidents,  but  also  (with)  the  life  of  one  who  climbed  the  lofti- 
est peaks  of  the  moral  philosophy  of  Paganism. — Rev.  F.  W. 
Farrar,  D.  D. 

Prepositions. 

A  Preposition  is  used  to  show  the  relation  between 
some  noun  or  pronoun  following  it  and  some  preceding 
word  which  the  preposition  with  its  object  modifies. 

When  two  prepositions  used  together  express  a  single 
reLation  they  may  be  considered  one  term,  and  be  called 
a  complex  preposition ;  as  out  of  in  the  sentence  "  Tliey 
came  running  out  of  the  house." 

But  is  a  preposition  when  it  is  used  in  the  sense  of 
except;  as,  "All  but  him  have  come." 

In  sucli  expressions  as  had  set  in,  were  looked  for,  etc., 
the  preposition  becomes  part  of  the  verb ;  had  set  in 
means  "  had  commenced,"  and  ivcre  looked  for,  "  were 
ex})ected." 

A  preposition  ending  a  sentence  without  an  object 
becomes  an  adverb;  as,  "Come  m;"  "Come  o»." 

After  like,  near,  nigh,  and  opposite,  the  preposition  is 
usually  omitted. 

The  preposition  is  also  sometimes  omitted  after  verbs 
of  giving,  procuring,  and  a  few  others ;  as,  "  Get  (  )  me 
a  book ;"  "  Give  (  )  me  some  help ;"  "  Teach  (  )  me 
the  way." 

The  preposition  is  omitted  also  before  nouns  denoting 
time,  value,  or  measure;  as,  "We  talked  (  )  an  hour;" 
"  The  book  is  worth  (  )  a  dollar ;"  "  We  had  walked 
(     )  ten  miles." 


134 


GOOD  ENGLISn. 


In  exclamatory  sentences  the  antecedent  is  frequently 
omitted  ;  as,  "  Oli,  for  a  home  !"  That  is,  "  Oh,  I  long 
for  a  home !" 

A  prei)osition  should  not  be  omitted  except  when 
such  construction  is  sanctioned  by  good  usage.  Thus, 
"  We  fled  the  country,"  should  be  "  We  fled  from  the 
countr3\" 

Care  should  be  taken  to  use  the  proper  preposition  to 
express  the  meaning  intended.  Certain  words  require 
the  association  with  them  of  certain  prepositions. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  important  com- 
binations : 


Abatement  of. 

Abhorrence  of. 

Abhorrent  to. 

Abide  in  or  at  a  place,  with 
a  person,  by  a  decision  or  an 
award. 

Abound  in  that  which  is  pos- 
sessed, with  that  which  follows 
or  inhabits. 

Absolve  from. 

Accede  to. 

Accommodate  a  thing  to,  a 
person  ^vith. 

Accompanied  by  persons  or 
animals,  u'ith  things  inani- 
mate. 

Accord  toith  (intransitive),  to 
(transitive). 

Accountable  to  a  i5erson,'/or 
a  thing. 

Accuse  of. 

Acquaint  rvith. 

Acquiesce  in. 

Acquit  of. 


Adapted  to  a  thing,  for  a 
purpose,  from  a  production. 

Adjourn  to  a  place,  at  an 
hour,  from  one  place  or  hour 
to  another. 

Admission  to  (access),  into 
(entrance). 

Advantage  over  a  person,  of 
privileges. 

Advice  to  a  person,  of  a  trans- 
action. 

Advise  of. 

Advocate  of  a  cause,  for  a 
person. 

Affinity  of  sounds  or  colors, 
for  a  ]'erson,  between  persons. 

Agree  to  proposals,  with  a 
person,  upon  something  deter- 
mined. 

Agreeable  to. 

Allied  to  a  cause,  with  a  per- 
son. 

Alter  from  one  thing,  to  an- 
other. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


135 


Analogy  between  two  objects, 
to  or  with  another. 

.  Angry  at  a  thing,  ivith  a  per- 
son. 

Answer  to  a  person,  for  an 
offence. 

Antagonism  between  two 
things,  to  or  against  a  thing. 

Anxious  for  success,  about 
one's  welfare. 

Apologize  for  an  affront,  to 
another. 

Appoint  /o  a  place,  over  oth- 
ers. 

Argue  tvith  a  person,  against 
a  project. 

Array  w;7/t  arguments,  in  col- 
ors or  dress. 

Arrive  at  a  place,  i«  a  vehi- 
cle, from  a  place. 

Ask  of  a  person,  for  what  is 
wanted,  a/ifer  one's  health. 

Aspire  to  a  thing,  after  an 
abstraction,  as  immortality. 

Attend  to  (listen),  attend 
upon  (wait). 

Averse  to. 

Banish  from  a  place  to  an- 
other. 

Bargain  with  a  person,  for  a 
thing. 

Bestow  on  or  upon. 

Betray  to  a  person,  into  a 
project. 

Bind  to  a  person,  %  a  bond. 

Blush  at  a  sight,  for  anoth- 
er's conduct. 

Boast  of. 


Border  on,  or  iqion. 

Bound  for. 

Call  at  a  place,  on  a  person,/or 
a  person  or  a  thing,  in  question, 
by  name,  to  or  after  a  person. 

Care  for,  about. 

Careful  of  our  possessions, 
about  our  conduct. 

Charge  on  an  enemy,  ^uitli  a 
crime,  against  a  person,  /c  one's 
account. 

Clear  of  harm,  from,  guilt. 

Communicate  to  a  j^erson, 
loith  others. 

Compare  icith  in  quality,  to 
for  illustration. 

Comjjly  icitli. 

Complain  against  a  person, 
of  actions. 

Concede  to. 

Concur  loith  a  person,  in  an 
opinion. 

Condemned  for  a  crime,  to  a 
punishment. 

Confer  o?i  or  iipon  a  measure, 
M'(7/i  (to  consult),  upon  (to  give 
as  a  favor). 

Confide  in  (to  trust  in). 

Confide  to  (to  entrust  with). 

Conform  to ;  in  conformity 
with;  conformable  to. 

Congratulate  oil  or  upon. 

Connect  with  an  equal,  to  a 
superior. 

Connive  with  a  jierson,  at  a 
proceeding. 

Consist  of  (composed  of), 
consist  in  (comprised  in). 


136 


GOOD  ENGLISH. 


Contend  «77/i  ai^erson,  against 
an  obstacle,/or  a  right  or  a  prin- 
ciple. 

Contradictory  of. 

Controversy  icitli  a  person, 
behveen  two,  about  matters. 

Convenient  for  persons,  to 
places. 

Conversant  with. 

Convert  to  a  doctrine,  into 
something  else. 

Copy  after  actions,  from 
things,  out  of  a  book. 

Correspond  with  (by  letter), 
to  similars. 

Covered  with  or  by. 

Debar  from  entrance,  ©/"priv- 
ileges. 

Defend  others //•<)?«,  ourselves 
against. 

Depend,  dependent,  on  or 
vpon. 

Derogatory  to. 

Desirous  of. 

Devolve  on  or  z/pon. 

Die  of  a,  disease,  from  hunger 
or  thirst,  bij  violence  or  an  in- 
strument, for  another. 

Ditrer  with  a  person  in  opin- 
ion, from  a  person  in  qualities 
or  characteristics,  about  or  con- 
cerning  a  question,  among  (to 
disagree). 

Different  from. 

Diminution  of. 

Disagree  in  opinion,  to  some- 
thing proposed. 

Disappointed    of  something 


not  obtained,  in  something  ob- 
tained which  fails  to  meet  our 
expectations. 

Discriminate  one  from  an- 
other, between  two. 

Disgusted  with  a  person,  at, 
with,  or  by  a  thing. 

Disqualified  for  a  position, 
from  holding  olfice. 

Dissent  from. 

Distinguish /rowi  another,  6e- 
twten  two. 

Divest  of. 

Divide  between  two,  among 
several,  with  others. 

Dwell  in  a  house  or  a  city,  at 
a  place,  on  a  street  or  a  farm. 

Embark  at  a  place,  in  busi- 
ness, for  profit  or  a  place. 

Embellished  by  an  artist, 
with  or  by  engravings. 

Emulous  of. 

Enamored  of. 

Encroach  on,  upon. 

Equivalent  to. 

Expel  from,  out  of. 

Expert  at  when  followed  by 
a  noun,  in  when  followed  by  a 
participle. 

Expose  to  loss  or  danger,  for 
sale. 

Familiar  to  me,  I  am  famil- 
iar with. 

Favored  hy  a  person,  with 
entertainment. 

Fight  with  another,  against 
foes,  for  a  principle. 

Followed  by. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


137 


Founded  in  truth,  or  upon 
a  basis. 

Free  from. 

Frown  at  a  person,  on  con- 
duct. 

Frugal  of. 

Glad  of  something  gained, 
of  or  at  what  befalls  another. 

Graduate  at  or  from  an  insti- 
tution, in  a  class. 

Grateful  to  a  person,  for  a 
favor. 

Ill  of 

Illustrated  by  an  artist,  with 
or  by  cuts. 

Impatient  tf?7/i  a  person,  at 
his  conduct,  of  restraint,  un- 
der misfortune,  for  something 
wanted. 

Incorporate  with  (to  com- 
bine), into  (to  take  into). 

Incumbent  on,  upon. 

Independent  of. 

Indulge  with  a  single  thing 
or  act,  in  something  habitual. 

Inquire  of  the  person  asked, 
after  or  about  the  subject  of  in- 
quiry, into  when  search  is  made 
for  particular  knowledge. 

Insensible  to. 

Inseparable  from. 

Insist  on,  upon. 

Introduce  to  a  person,  into  a 
place. 

Involve  in. 

Jealous  of 

Join  to  something  greater, 
with  something  equal. 


Killed  by  an  enemy,  7viih  an 
instrument. 

Lean  07i  or  against  a  support, 
to  an  opinion. 

Live  at  a  village  or  a  for- 
eign city,  in  a  city  or  the  coun- 
try. 

Long  after,  for. 

Marry  to. 

Martyr  for  or  to  a  cause,  to  a 
disease. 

Need  of. 

Notice  of. 

Observance  of. 

Opinion  on,  about. 

Part  from  persons,  with  be- 
longings. 

Pay  for  something,  to  a  per- 
son, with  money. 

Placed  in,  on. 

Preferable  to. 

Prevail  on,  upon,  or  with  (to 
persuade),  against  (to  over- 
come). 

Profit  by. 

Pronounce  against  a  person, 
on  a  thing. 

Protect  others/ra/n,  ourselves 
against. 

Provide  for,  against,  with. 

Put  into,  in  (place). 

Reconciled  with  a  person,  to 
a  condition. 

Reduce  to  a  state,  under  sub- 
jection. 

Regret  for. 

Rejoice  tvith  a  person,  at  or 
i)i  good  news. 


138 


GOOD  ENGLISH. 


Relieve  from  restraint  or 
anxiety,  of  property. 

Rely  on,  xipon. 

Remedy  for,  against. 

Remonstrate  tvith  a  person, 
against  a  proceeding. 

Resemblance  to  each  other, 
between  two. 

Reside  at  a  village,  in  a  city 
or  the  country. 

Restrain  from. 

Rid  of 

Search  for  or  after  a  person, 
into  particulars,  out  the  truth. 

Seized  by  an  enemy,  with  ill- 
ness. 

Smile  on  or  upon  favorably, 
at  unfavorably. 

Speak  to  an  audience,  to  or 
with  a  person,  on  or  about  a 
subject. 

Strive  tvith  a  person,  for  an 
object,  against  an  obstacle. 


Struggle  u'ith  an  adversary, 
for  an  object  desired. 

Suspected  of  a  fault,  iy  a 
person. 

Suitable  to  one's  station, /or 
a  purpose. 

Swerve  from. 

Sympathize  witli  a  person,  in 
one's  sorrow. 

Think  of,  on,  about. 

Thirst /or,  after. 

Trust  in  (to  have  confidence 
in),  to  (to  depend  on). 

Unite  to  (transitive),  loith 
(intransitive). 

Useful  to  a  person,  for  a  pur- 
pose. 

Unworthy  of. 

Vest  m  a  person,  with  a  thing. 

Vexed  ivith  a  person,  at  con- 
duct. 

Wait  on  a  person  (to  serve), 
at  a  table, /or  what  is  expected. 


Errors  in  the  Use  of  Prepositions. 

Based  in  [on]  the  great  self-evident  truths  of  liberty  and 
equal ity. — Scholar's  Manual. 

Looked  at  in  [from]  this  point  of  view,  we  cannot  refuse  to 
regard  them  as  organisms  of  some  peculiar  and  amazing  kind. 
— Smiles. 

I  think  it  must  have  been  to  [from]  some  such  primitive  ex- 
planation of  the  whooping-cough  that  there  has  grown  up  in 
Austria  the  unique  custom  of  treating  that  disease  by  adminis- 
tering the  rod. — M.  D.  Conway:  Francis  May. 

He  has  not  been  averse  from  [to]  a  moderate  quantity  of 
good,  sound,  fruity  port. —  G.  A.  Sala. 

Politics,  as  he  makes  even  Demosthenes  admit,  are  [is]  the 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  139 

sad  refuge  of  restless  minds,  averse  from  [to]  business  and  from 
[to]  study. — Leslie  Stephen. 

This  brings  to  my  mind  another  instance  of  the  same  nature, 
where  our  English  poet,  by  not  attending  to  the  peculiar  expres- 
sion of  his  author,  has  given  us  a  picture  of  a  very  different  kind 
than  [from]  what  Homer  intended. — Fifz  Osborne. 

The  seventeenth  century  evidently  had  a  different  notion  of 
books  and  women  than  [from]  that  which  flourishes  in  the  nine- 
teenth.—/Vt/^  Mall  Gazette. 


Conjunctions. 

Conjunctions  are  used  to  connect  either  words, 
phrases,  or  sentences. 

Care  must  be  taken,  however,  that  they  connect  like 
parts ;  thus,  a  word  with  a  word,  a  plirase  with  a  plirase, 
or  a  clause  with  a  clause;  and  in  coiniecting  words,  the 
words  must  be  of  the  same  parts  of  speech,  a  verb  with 
a  verb,  an  adjective  with  an  adjective,  etc. ;  but  a  noun 
may  be  connected  with  a  pronoun. 

Elements  of  equal  rank  are  connected  by  what  are 
known  as  coordinate  conjunctions,  and,  also,  but,  yet, 
etc. 

A  modifying  clause  is  connected  with  the  principal 
clause  by  means  of  a  subordinate  conjunction;  as,  "  He 
will  attend,  that  he  may  learn." 

A  modifying  clause  may  be  connected  with  the  prin- 
cipal clause  also  by  a  relative  pronoun  or  by  a  conjunc- 
tive adverb.  ' 

The  subordinate  clause  always  modifies  some  word  or' 
words  in  the  principal  clause. 

Sometimes  conjunctions,  or  conjunctions  with  other 
parts  of  speech,  are  used  in  pairs  to  mark  the  sense 
more  clearly.     These  pairs  are  known  as  correlatives. 


140  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Tlie  chief  correlatives  are — 

Both  ....  and:  "i)o/!/i  teacher  fl?if/ pupils  were  tired." 

Either  ....  or  :  "  Nouns  are  cither  common  or  proper." 

Neither  ....  nor :  "  Men  are  neither  -wholly  good  nor 
wliolly  bad." 

"Whether  ....  or  :"  I  care  not  u-hethcr  you  go  or  stay." 

If  .  .  .  .  then:  "T/"  this  be  treason,  then  make  the  most 
of  it." 

Though  ....  yet :  "  Tliouyh  deep,  yet  clear." 

Such  (adj.)  ....  that  (conj.),  to  express  a  consequence: 
"His  conduct  was  such  that  all  will  see  the  wrong." 

As  (adv.)  ....  as  (conj.),  to  express  equality:  "My  chances 
are  as  good  as  yours." 

As  (conj.)  ....  so  (adv.),  to  express  equality:  "As  the 
teacher  is,  so  is  the  school." 

So  (adv.)  ....  as  (conj.),  to  deny  equality:  "You  are  not 
so  young  as  you  were." 

So  (adv.)  ....  as  (conj.),  to  express  a  comparison  :  "How 
can  you  be  so  base  as  to  lie?" 

So  (adv.)  ....  that  (conj.),  to  express  a  consequence:  "So 
live  that  you  may  be  fearless  of  consequences." 

So  (adv.)  ....  as  (adv.),  with  an  infinitive  following,  to 
express  a  consequence :  "  We  ought  so  to  read  as  to  make  our- 
selves distinctly  understood." 

Not  only  ....  but  (conj.),  when  the  latter  term  of  com- 
parison includes  the  former:  "Not  only  Pennsylvania  but  the 
whole  nation  is  interested  in  this  question." 

Not  only  ....  but  also  (conj.),  or  but  even  (conj.), 
when  the  latter  term  of  comparison  does  not  include  the  for- 
mer: "iVb<  o?2iy  Pennsylvania  but  also  Delaware  is  west  of  the 
Delaware  river;"  "Not  only  the  children  but  eve?i  the  teachers 
were  frightened." 

When  several  words  are  taken  together  to  form  a  con- 
junction, the  combination  is  known  as  a  complex  con- 
junction. 

The  i»rinci])al  com])lcx  conjunctions  are — 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  141 

as  if,  but  also,  but  likewise, 

as  well  as,  but  even,  even  though, 

forasmuch  as,  but  that,  except  that, 
inasmuch  as, 

The  conjunction  that  is  sometimes  used  merely  to  in- 
troduce a  subordinate  clause  which  is  made  the  subject 
of  the  sentence;  as,  "That  you  have  been  deceived,  is 
very  clear." 

The  conjunction  as  is  often  used  to  unite  words  that 
are  in  apposition  ;  as,  "  His  work  as  a  teacher  was  satis- 
factory ;"  "  He  offered  himself  as  clerk ;^^  "  This  gentleman 
as  my  friend  will  protect  me." 

The  expression  as  fullow  is  used  by  many  wliere  the 
antecedent  is  a  noun  in  the  plural  number;  thus,  "His 
words  are  as  follow." — Spectator.  In  such  sentences  the 
meaning  probably  is  "  as  they  follow ;"  or  if  as  is  re- 
garded as  a  relative  pronoun,  it  may  be  taken  in  the 
plural,  and  the  word  foUoiv  properly  agree  with  it  in  the 
plural.  Many  writers,  however,  claim  that  the  singular 
verb  should  be  used,  and  the  expression  read  "  as  fol- 
lows," meaning  as  it  folloivs. 

Occasionally  the  conjunction  that  is  understood ;  as, 
"The  truth  is  (that)  we  have  been  badly  treated." 

After  than  or  as,  when  connecting  the  terms  of  a  com- 
parison, there  is  usually  an  ellipsis  of  some  word  or 
words ;  as,  "  He  is  older  than  I  (am)." 

The  sentence,  "  He  gave  me  more  than  you,"  shows 
the  necessity  of  supplying  the  omitted  words  to  make 
the  sentence  clear,  as  it  may  mean  "  He  gave  me  more 
than  he  gave  you,"  or  "  He  gave  me  more  than  you  gave 
me." 

As  to  the  expression  "than  whom,"  Lennie\s  Gram- 
mar, 1830,  says,  "  When  ivho  immediately  follows  than, 
it  is  used  improperly  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  '  Alfred, 


142  GOOD  EXGLISH. 

than  ichom  a  greater  king  never  reigned ;' — than  whom  is 
not  grammatical.  It  onglit  to  be  tlian  who,  because  who 
is  in  the  nominative  to  was  understood.  It  is  true  that 
some  of  our  best  writers  have  used  other  plirases  which 
we  have  rejected  as  ungrammatical ;  then  why  not  reject 
this  too?"     Why  not? 

Professor  Fowler,  an  authority  of  note,  says  with  re- 
gard to  the  expression,  "Satan,  than  whom  none  higher 
sat,"  that  it  should  be  "  Satan,  than  who  none  higher 
sat." 

When  two  terms  connected  are  to  be  com})leted  in 
sense  by  a  third,  they  must  be  so  expressed  as  to  make 
sense  with  it.  Thus,  "  He  has  made  changes  and  addi- 
tions to  his  house,"  should  be  "  He  has  made  changes 
in  his  house  and  additions  to  it." 

Two  terms  connected  by  a  conjunction  should  be  the 
same  in  kind  or  quality  rather  than  different.  Thus, 
"The  help  was  prompt  and  cheerfully  given,"  should  be 
"  The  help  was  promj)t  and  cheerful,"  or  "  The  help  was 
prompt,  and  it  was  cheerfully  given." 

After  also,  other,  othenvise,  rather,  and  other  English 
comparatives,  the  latter  term  of  an  exclusive  compari- 
son should  be  introduced  by  the  conjunction  than. 
Thus,  "  There  were  no  others  than  these;"  "  His  speech 
was  nothing  else  tJian  deception." 

Relative  pronouns  being  connectives,  they  exclude  con- 
junctions, unless  there  are  "two  or  more  relative  clauses 
to  be  connected.  I'lie  following  sentence  is  faulty : 
"The  princij)al  and  distinguishing  excellence  of  Virgil, 
and  wJdch.  he  possesses  beyond  all  ])oets,  is  tenderness." 
It  should  read.  "The  jirinciijal  and  distinguishing  ex- 
cellence of  Virgil,  an  excellence  which  he  possesses 
beyond  all  other  ])oets,  is  tenderness." 

After  expressions  denoting  doubt,  fear,  or  denial,  that 


ENGLISH  GRA3IMAR.  143 

should  be  used  instead  of  hut^  but  that,  or  lest;  as,  "I 
doubt  not  that  you  will  succeed." 

It  is  correct  to  use  the  words  but  also  only  where  the 
words  but  in  addition  could  be  substituted. 

Errors  in  the  use  of  the  proper  correlative  of  not  only 
are  frequent  even  with  reputable  writers. 

Errors  in  the  Use  of  Conjunctions. 

I  have  and  pretend  to  be  a  tolerable  judge. — Shakespeare. 

He  was  more  beloved  but  not  so  much  admired  as  Cinthio. — 
Addison. 

The  Court  of  Chancery  frequently  mitigates,  and  breaks  the 
teeth  of  the  common  law. — Spectator. 

Antony,  coming  alongside  of  her  ship,  entered  it  without 
seeing  or  being  seen  by  her. — Goldsmith's  Greece. 

Composition  is  excellent,  and  (it  is)  the  vital  principle  in  all 
these  things. — Dr.  Lieber. 

To  have  [having]  only  one  time,  or  measure,  is  not  much 
better  than  having  none  at  all. — Blair. 

Facts  too  well  known  and  (too)  obvious  to  be  insisted  on. — 
Blair. 

I  cannot  doubt  but  that  [that]  these  objects  are  really  what 
they  appear  to  be. — Karnes'  Elements  of  Criticism, 
We've  both  the  field  and  honor  won ; 
The  foe  is  profligate,  and  (he  has)  run. — Hudibras. 

I  question  not  but  [that]  my  reader  will  be  pleased  with  it. — 
Spectator. 

I  doubt  not  but  [that]  such  objections  as  these  will  be  made. 
— Locke. 

The  terms  rich  or  [and]  poor  enter  not  into  their  language. — 
Robertson  s  America. 

There  being  no  other  dictator  here  but  [than]  use. —  Camp- 
bell's Rhetoric. 

Many  of  Lord  JefFrey's  reviews  are  little  else  but  [than] 
special  pleading. —  Tuckerman. 

I  have  no  doubt  but  that  [that]  the  pistol  is  a  relic  of  the 
buccaneers.  —  W.  Irving. 


144  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Their  relation,  therefore,  is  not  otherwise  to  be  ascertained 
but  [than]  by  their  place. — CavipbeWs  Rhetoric. 

There  is  no  other  method  of  teaching  that  of  which  one  is 
ignorant  but  [than],  by  means  of  something  already  known. — 
Dr.  Johnson. 

O  fairest  flower,  no  sooner  blown  but  [than]  blasted. — Milton. 
As  if  religion  were  intended 
For  nothing  else  hut  [than]  to  be  mended. — Hudibras. 

About  the  time  of  Solon,  the  Athenian  legislator,  the  custom 
is  said  to  have  been  introduced,  and  uihich  still  prevails,  of  writ- 
ing in  lines  from  left  to  right. — Jamieson's  Rhetoric.  [Change 
to  "The  custom  of  writing  in  lines  from  left  to  right,  which  still 
prevails,  is  said  to  have  been  introduced."] 

Conversation  with  such  tcho  [as]  know  no  arts  which  polish 
life. — Spectator. 

For  the  torrent  of  the  voice  left  neither  time  or  [nor]  power 
in  the  organs  to  sliape  tlie  words  properly. — Sheridan's  Elocu- 
tion. 

Its  influence  is  likely  to  be  considerable  in  the  morals  and 
(in  the)  taste  of  a  nation. — Blair's  Rhetoric. 

Whether  the  subject  be  of  the  real  or  (the)  figurative  kind. — 
Blair. 

Bruce  spoke  of  himself  and  his  compeers  as  being  neither 
Scottish  or  [nor]   English,  but  Norman  barons. — Scott. 

It  is  perhaps  the  finest  of  all  Juvenal's  satires,  the  mightiest, 
the  sternest,  and  (the)  most  deeply  impressed,  not  merely  by  a 
sense  [by  a  sense  not  merely]  of  bitterness,  but  (also)  of  the 
deep  responsibility  of  life.  —  Westminster  Review. 

The  author  has  sat  at  the  feet  of  our  Elizabethan  dramatists, 
and  in  one  or  two  places  has  caught  not  merely  |has  not  merely 
caught]  their  idioms  and  phrases,  but  has  (also)  become  imbued 
with  something  of  their  manner  of  spirit. — Idem. 

Homer  was  not  only  the  maker  of  a  nation  [the  maker  not  only 
of  a  nation],  but  (also)  of  a  language  and  of  a  religion. — Athe- 
nceum. 

The  result  is  not  pleasant  to  us  only  [pleasant  to  us  not  only] 
because  it  fulfills  our  predictions,  but  (also)  because  any  other 
would  have  been  })roductive  of  infinite  mischief. — Spectator. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  145 

Its  almost  vulgar  personality  may  convey  to  those  who  are 
neither  acquainted  [acquainted  neither]  with  the  writer  or  [nor 
with]  his  books. —  Quarterly  Revieiu. 

The  hardship  is  that  in  these  times  we  can  neither  speak  of 
kings  or  queens  [speak  neither  of  kings  nor  of  queens]  without 
suspicion  of  politics  or  personalities. — Bijron. 

But  he  was  neither  fitted  [fitted  neither]  by  abilities  nor  by 
disposition  to  answer  the  wishes  of  his  mother. — Miss  Austen. 

Taking  the  Thackeray  gallery  as  a  whole,  we  cannot  admit 
that  either  in  qualities  of  [that  in  qualities  of  either]  head  or 
heart  his  women  are  inferior  to  the  women  we  generally  meet. 
— North  British  Review. 

The  engi'aving  is  neither  like  [like  neither]  me  nor  the  pic- 
ture.— Miss  Mitford. 

Neither  our  vices  or  [nor]  our  virtues  are  all  our  own. — Dr. 
Johnson. 

This  is  consistent  neither  with  logic  nor  (with)  history. —  Tlie 
Dial. 

Whilst  they  are  learning  and  apply  [applying]  themselves 
with  attention,  they  are  to  be  kept  in  a  good  humor. — Locke. 

He  firmly  refused  to  make  use  of  any  other  voice  but  [than] 
his  own. —  Goldsmith's  Greece. 

Your  marching  regiments,  Sir,  will  not  make  the  guards  their 
example,  either  as  soldiers  or  (as)  subjects. — Junius. 

Words  used  as  Different  Parts  of  Speech. 

It  is  a  well  settled  principle  of  Grammar  that  use 
determines  the  classification  of  a  word. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  imi^ortant  words 
whose  classification  varies  according  to  the  use  of  the 
word : 

As  is  a  conjunction  when  it  means  since  or  because; 
thus,  ^^  As  he  was  ambitious,  I  slew  liim." 

It  is  an  adverb  when  it  represents  time,  degree,  or 
manner;  as,  "He  came  as  soon  as  he  could;"  "I  fared 
as  well  as  I  expected." 

10 


146  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

It  is  a  conjunctive  ndvcrb  when  it  introduces  a  subor- 
dinate clause;  as,  "They  went  out  as  we  came  in." 

Before,  After,  Till,  Until,  are  adverbs,  or  ratlier  conjunc- 
tive adrerhs,  when  tlicy  introduce  subordinate  clauses; 
as,  "  Think  before  you  speak;"  "  They  came  after  we  had 
gone."    "  We  waited  until  the  meeting  closed." 

They  are  p'epositions  when  used  to  show  relation,  and 
they  should  be  followed  by  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the 
objective  case ;  as,  "  We  stood  bej'ore  him ;"  "  The  dog 
ran  aj'ter  the  rabbit;"  "The  storm  delayed  us  till  night." 

Both  may  be  either  an  adjective  or  a  conjunction. 

1.  It  is  an  adjective  when  it  is  used  to  limit  a  noun ; 
as,-"J?o^/t  men  earned  their  wages." 

2.  It  is  a  conjunction  when  it  is  used  with  and  to  con- 
nect sentences  or  parts  of  sentences ;  as,  "  They  were 
both  tired  and  hungry." 

But  may  be  a  preposition,  an  adverb,  or  a  conjunc- 
tion. 

1.  It  is  a  'preposition  when  it  means  except;  as, 
"Whence  all  but  him  had  fled." 

2.  It  is  an  adverb  when  it  means  oidy ;  as,  "I  have 
made  the  trip  but  once." 

3.  It  is  a  conjunction  when  it  connects  sentences  or 
parts  of  sentences ;  as,  "  It  is  not  he  but  you  that  are 
to  blame." 

But  implies  some  opposition  or  excc])tion.  Yet  and 
however  are  nearly  equivalent,  but  are  milder  in  their 
application.  Nevertheless,  while  having  a  meaning  sim- 
ilar to  but,  is  a  much  stronger  term. 

Either  and  Neither  are  used  as  pronominal  adjectives 
and  as  conjunctions. 

1.  They  are  used  as  jironondiud  adjectives  when  they 
limit  or  represent  nouns ;  as,  "i\ei7/io*  man  answered;" 
^^  Either  boy  may  help." 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  147 

2.  Tliey  are  conjunctions  wlien  they  assist  in  connect- 
ing sentences;  as,  ^^ Either  yon  or  your  brothers  should 
come;"  ^'Neither  the  man  nor  liis  son  was  here." 

The  proper  correlative  of  either  is  or,  and  of  neither, 
nor. 

As  adjectives,  either  and  neither  are  in  use  limited  to 
two.  Wlien  more  than  two  are  referred  to,  any  one  or 
none  should  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  eitJier  or 
neither.  Thus,  we  say  ^''Either  of  the  two,"  but  '■'Any 
one  of  the  five;"  so  also,  ^^ Neither  of  the  two;"  but 
^'■None  of  the  three." 

Either  as  an  adjective  may  imply  "each  of  two;"  as, 
"A  farm  on  eltlier  side  of  the  railroad;"  that  is,  two 
farms,  one  on  each  side  of  the  railroad.  "  A  farm  on 
both  sides  of  the  railroad  "  means  one  farm  through 
which  the  railroad  passes. 

As  conjunctions,  either  and  neither  may  be  used  with 
any  number;  as,  ^^ Neither  man,  woman,  nor  child  was 
spared  from  an  attack  of  the  dread  disease." 

For  may  be  either  a  conjunction  or  a  ])reposition. 

1.  It  is  a  conjunction  when  it  means  because,  or  is  used 
in  giving  a  reason ;  as,  "  Let  us  return,  Jor  it  is  getting 

'late." 

2.  It  is  a  preposition  when  it  is  followed  by  a  noun  or 
a  pronoun  in  the  objective  case;  as,  "He  bought  the 
book  for  me." 

The  three  W'ords,  for,  because,  and  since,  are  to  some 
extent  interchangeable.  Because  means  "b}'  the  cause 
of,"  and  had  originally  a  reference  to  physical  cause. 
It  is  now  used  chiefly  to  express  a  reason,  especially  in 
answer  to  why.  Since  is  less  formal  than  "  because,"  and 
in  its  conjunctive  sense  is  usually  placed  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  sentence.  The  difference  in  tlie  Avords  is  il- 
lustrated in  the  following  sentences :  "  ^^'e  will  not  go 


148  GOOD  ESGLISII. 

because  the  day  is  too  cold."     ^^  Since  the  day  is  so  cold, 
we  will  not  go." 

Like  may  be  used  as  a  noun,  as  a  verb,  as  an  adjec- 
tive, and  as  a  conjunctive  adverb. 

1.  It  is  a  noun  when  it  is  used  as  a  name;  as,  '^ Like 
begets  like  f  "  We  shall  never  look  upon  his  like  again." 

2.  It  is  a  verb  when  it  expresses  action  ;  as,  "  I  like  the 
music ;"  "  I  like  order." 

3.  It  is  an  adjective  when  it  modifies  a  noun,  or  when 
it  compares  objects ;  as,  "  The  girl  is  like  her  mother." 

4.  It  is  a  conjunctive  adverb  when  it  compares  actions 
or  connects  clauses ;  as,  "  She  sings  like  an  angel ;"  "  He 
fights  like  a  tiger." 

Since  may  be  a  conjunction,  a  preposition,  or  an 
adverb. 

1.  It  is  a  conjunction  when  it  means  j'or  the  reason  that ; 
as,  ^^  Since  you  wish  it,  I  will  remain." 

2.  It  is  a  ■preposition  when  it  is  followed  by  a  noun  in 
the  objective  case  denoting  time ;  as,  "  We  have  had  no 
rain  since  June." 

'-).  It  is  an  adverb  in  all  other  cases. 
That  may  be  a  conjunction,  a  relative  pronoun,  or  a 
pronominal  adjective. 

1.  It  is  a  conjunction  when  it  is  used  to  introduce  a 
subordinate  clause  or  connect  sentences;  as,  "  I  believe 
that  we  shall  succeed ;"  ''  T/iat  we  shall  succeed  is  cer- 
tain." 

2.  It  is  a  relative  pronoun  when  it  is  used  instead  of 
"  who "  or  "  which  ;"  as,  "  This  is  the  first  one  thcd 
came." 

3.  It  is  a  pronominal  adjective  Avlien  it  limits  or  rep- 
resents a  noun  ;  as,  "  That  knife  is  mine ;"  "  TJiat  is 
my  knife." 

Then  may  be  used  as  a  conjunction  or  as  an  adverb. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  149 

1.  It  is  used  as  a  conjunction  when  it  means  "there- 
fore" or  "in  that  case;"  as,  "If  this  be  treason,  then 
make  the  most  of  it." 

2.  It  is  an  adverb  when  it  denotes  time ;  as,  "  It  was 
then  too  late  to  correct  the  mistake." 

"What  may  be  a  relative  pronoun,  an  interrogative 
pronoun,  a  pronominal  adjective,  an  adverb,  or  an  in- 
terjection. 

1.  It  is  a  relative  'pronoun  when  "  that  wliich "  or 
"  those  which "  may  be  substituted ;  as,  "  We  know 
what  he  wished  to  say." 

2.  It  is  an  interrogative  'pronoun  when  it  is  used  to 
ask  a  question;  as,  ^^What  have  you  brought?" 

3.  It  is  a  pronominal  adjective  when  it  limits  a  noun ; 
as,  "  What  beautiful  flowers  these  are !" 

4.  It  is  an  adverb  when  it  means  "  partly  ;"  as,  "  What 
by  threats  and  what  b}^  stratagem  we  succeeded." 

5.  It  is  an  interjection  when  used  to  express  surprise ; 
as,  ^^What!    Shall  we  give  up  Avithout  a  contest?" 

Sometimes  what  is  used  both  as  a  pronominal  adjec- 
tive and  as  a  relative  pronoun,  when  it  limits'  a  noun 
and  at  the  same  time  "  that  which  "  or  "  those  which  " 
may  be  substituted  for  it ;  as,  "  What  money  we  had  was 
useless." 

"Well  may  be  a  noun,  a  verb,  an  adjective,  an  adverb, 
or  an  interjection. 

1.  It  is  a  noun  when  it  denotes  an  object;  as,  "The 
well  is  deep." 

2.  It  is  a  verb  when  it  expresses  action ;  as,  "  The 
water  wells  out  from  under  the  rocks." 

3.  It  is  an  adjective  when  it  is  used  to  limit  a  noun  or 
a  pronoun  ;  as,  "  Tlie  boy  is  wcllJ^ 

4.  It  is  an  adverb  when  it  limits  a  verb;  as,  "That  was 
well  done." 


150  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

5.  It  is  an  interjection,  when  used  as  an  exclamation ; 
as,  "ire/^,  ivell!    This  is  an  important  affair." 

Well  as  an  adverb  is  sometimes  used  independently  to 
introduce  a  sentence;  as,  "IFe//,  shall  we  start?" 

While  may  be  a  noun,  a  verb,  or  an  adverb. 

1.  It  is  a  noun  when  it  means  a  portion  of  time;  as, 
"  Let  us  sit  here  for  a  ivhileJ^ 

2.  It  is  a  verb  when  it  means  to  "  spend  "  or  "  pass ;" 
as,  "  We  fished  to  ivhile  away  the  time." 

3.  It  is  a  conjunctive  adverb  when  it  means  during  the 
time  in  which,  or  is  used  to  connect  clauses ;  as,  "  Tiiey 
were  attentive  ivhile  the  teacher  spoke." 

Yet  may  be  either  a  conjunction  or  an  adverb. 

1.  It  is  a  conjunction  when  it  means  nevertheless  or  not- 
withstanding;  as,  "Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in 
him." 

2.  It  is  an  adverb  when  it  means  thus  far,  in  addition, 
or  at  the  present  time;  as,  "We  have  not  yet  completed 
our  work." 


PUNCTUATION. 


Punctuation  treats  of  the  use  of  points  in  dividing 
written  composition.  It  is  essentially  a  grammatical 
process. 

The  chief  use  of  punctuation  is  to  divide  discourse 
into  sentences,  and  sentences  into  parts,  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  will  best  show  the  relation  of  these  parts  to  one 
another. 

Usage  differs  somewhat  among  authors  of  good  repute 
with  regard  to  the  use  of  some  of  the  marks  of  jjunctua- 
tion,  but  that  is  more  the  fault  of  the  authors  than  of 
the  system,  and  it  ought  not  to  be  quoted  as  an  argu- 
ment against  punctuation. 

There  is  of  course  much  left  to  individual  judgment, 
just  as  there  is  in  determining  the  meaning  of  a  sen- 
tence, but  it  is  equally  true  that  the  punctuation  of  a 
sentence  frequently  determines  its  meaning. 

The  chief  marks  of  punctuation  are — 

1.  The  Period (.) 

2.  The  Comma (  ,  ) 

3.  The  Semicolon (  ; ) 

4.  The  Colon ( :  ) 

5.  The  Interrogation  Point (?) 

6.  The  Exclamation  Point (!) 

7.  The  Dash (— ) 

8.  Marks  of  Parenthesis (  ) 

9.  Quotation  Marks (  "  "  ) 

10.  The  Hyphen (  -  ) 

151 


152  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

In  addition  to  these  there  are  a  few  otlier  marks  used 
by  writers  and  printers,  which  will  be  explained  far- 
ther on. 

The  Period. 

The  Period  was  the  first  punctuation  mark  intro- 
duced, and  was  used  originall}^  to  indicate  the  comple- 
tion of  a  sentence. 

The  following  are  the  chief  rules  for  the  use  of  the 
Period : 

1.  Complete  Sentences. — A  period  should  be  placed 
after  every  declarative  or  imperative  sentence. 

When  long  compound  sentences  are  broken  up  into 
shorter  ones,  each  of  these  shorter  sentences  should  be 
followed  b}'^  a  period. 

Sometimes  a  conjunction,  as  and  or  hut,  is  used  to 
introduce  a  sentence,  but  it  has  no  efi'ect  on  the  punc- 
tuation.    A  familiar  example  is — 

"And  Moses  spake  unto  the  children  of  Israel." 

2.  Abbreviations. — A  period  sliould  be  placed  after  evei'y 
abhrcriated  word. 

Some  abbreviated  words  consist  of  initials  only,  as 
U.  S.  Grant  for  Ulysses  Simpson  Grant.  In  such  cases 
the  period  should  follow  each  initial. 

Letters  are  sometimes  used  in  mathematics  to  indi- 
cate angles,  lines,  etc.  These  are  not  abbreviations,  and 
they  take  no  period  after  them.  We  speak  of  them  as 
the  angle  A,  the  angle  A  BC,  or  the  line  C  D,  l)ut  in  no 
case  where  so  used  do  they  require  a  period. 

Sometimes  letters  are  used  also  to  represent  fictitious 
persons  in  the  statement  of  mathematical  })robk'ms;  as, 
"  Mr.  A  bought  a  farm,"  etc.  In  such  cases  no  period  is 
necessary. 


PUNCTUATION.  153 

When  the  Roman  numerals  are  used  to  denote  num- 
bers, a  period  is  usually  placed  after  the  combination ; 
as,  Geo.  III.,  Chap.  XVI.,  A.  D.,  MDCLIL,  though  it 
may  be  remarked  that  some  late  writers  omit  the 
period. 

When  letters  are  doubled  to  indicate  the  plural,  as  11. 
for  lines,  pp.  for  pages,  MM.  for  Messieurs,  LL.  for  legum, 
only  one  period  is  placed  after  the  abbreviation. 

When  the  abbreviated  word  closes  the  sentence,  but 
one  period  is  used.  Thus,  "  Our  neighbor  is  James 
Hodgson,  M.  D." 

When  the  abbreviations  represent  separate  words,  a 
period  follows  each ;  as,  Post  Master,  P.  M.,  Doctor  of 
Medicine,  M.  D.,  Master  of  Arts,  A.  M.,  Doctor  of  Laws, 
LL.D. 

When  abbreviated  words  become  current  as  abridged 
words  in  good  use,  as  cah  for  cabriolet,  consols  for  consol- 
idated annuities,  no  period  is  required  after  them. 

When  an  abbreviated  name  becomes  a  nickname,  as 
Ben,  Dan,  Will,  Sue,  no  period  is  used. 

Ordinal  adjectives,  as  2d,  3d,  4th,  6th,  etc.,  are  not 
abbreviations,  but  substituted  forms  for  second,  third, 
fourth,  sixth,  etc.  No  period  therefore  should  be  placed 
after  them. 

Note  that  2d,  3d,  and  all  words  ending  with  these 
forms,  as  22d,  23d,  42d,  43d,  etc.,  end  Avith  d  only,  not 
nd  or  rd. 

3.  Complete  Expressions.— .4  period  should  be  placed 
after  each  Heading,  Title,  Signature,  Imprint,  or  Advertise- 
ment, when  the  expression  is  complete  in  itself. 

The  title-page  of  a  book  usually  consists  of  three 
parts :  1.  The  name  of  the  book ;  2.  The  name  of  tlie 
author,  with  his  professional  titles  appended ;  3.  The 
name  of  the  publisher,  with  the  place  of  publication. 


154  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Each  of  these  parts  sliould  be  followed  by  a  period.  A 
practice  has  lately  become  fLisliionable  to  omit  periods 
altogether  from  title-pages,  but  it  is  -wholly  without  lit- 
erary authority. 

4.  Numbers  of  Paragraphs. — A  period  should  follow 
each  figure  or  letter  indicating  the  number  of  the  paragraph, 
the  sentence,  or  the  particular  heading.     Thus, 

Some  of  the  chief  marks  of  punctuation  are — 

1.  The  Period, 

2.  The  Comma, 

3.  The  Semicolon. 

The  Comma. 

The  Comma  is  used  to  mark  the  least  degree  of  sep- 
aration in  the  divisions  of  a  sentence.  The  words  comma, 
semicolon,  and  colon  were  originally  used  to  denote  the 
portion  of  the  sentence  cut  off  rather  than  the  mark. 

The  following  are  the  chief  rules  for  the  use  of  the 
Comma : 

1.  Compound  Sentences. — A  comma  is  used  to  sepa- 
rate the  members  of  a  compound  sentence  when  the  degree  of 
sejxiration  is  slight.     Thus, 

"There  was  an  abundance  of  game,  but  we  had  no  gun." 

2.  Relative  Clauses. — Relative  clauses  which  are  ex- 
planatory) or  which  present  an  additional  thought  are  set 
off  by  commas,  but  when  such  a  clause  is  restrictive  it  is  not 
separated  from  the  chief  clause  by  a  comma. 

A  restrictive  clause  is  one  that  limits  its  antecedent  to 
some  particular  meaning,  while  a  non-restrictive  clause 
is  equivalent  to  an  additional  thought.  Thus,  in  the 
sentence,  "The  man  who  is  industrious  will  succeed," 
the  clause  "  who  is  industrious"  is  restrictive,  the  sen- 
tence being  equivalent  to  "  The  industrious  man  will  sue- 


PUNCTUATION.  155 

ceed."  In  the  sentence,  "  Mr.  Slmrp,  ivho  is  an  industrious 
man,  will  succeed,"  the  clause  in  italics  simply  adds  an 
additional  thought  with  regard  to  Mr.  Sharp,  and  it  is 
therefore  non-restrictive.  It  may  be  dropped  from  the 
sentence  Avithout  destroying  the  sense  of  the  principal 
clause;  thus,  "Mr.  Sharp  will  succeed." 

In  the  sentence,  "  The  man  who  is  industrious  will 
succeed,"  the  restrictive  clause  limits  the  meaning  not 
only  to  "  man,"  but  to  a  particular  man,  "  The  man  who 
is  industrious." 

If  several  words  intervene  between  a  relative  pro- 
noun and  its  grammatical  antecedent,  a  comma  should 
be  placed  before  the  relative  clause.     Thus, 

"  He  will  be  most  likely  to  win  success,  who  is  most  faithful." 

If  a  relative  pronoun  is  followed  by  a  word  or  a 
phrase  enclosed  by  commas,  a  comma  should  be  placed 
before  the  relative  clause  even  when  this  clause  is  re- 
strictive.    Thus, 

"They,  who,  notwithstanding  the  fiict  that  they  were  stran- 
gers, defended  us,  merited  our  gratitude." 

When  the  relative  has  for  its  antecedent  several  nouns 
or  clauses  in  succession,  it  should  be  separated  from  the 
last  by  a  comma,  even  though  the  relative  be  restrictive. 
Thus, 

"There  were  present  laborers,  merchants,  and  professional 
men,  who  doubted  the  arguments  of  the  speaker." 

If  the  comma  were  omitted  after  the  Avord  "men,"  the 
sentence  could  be  construed  to  mean  that  only  the  pro- 
fessional men  doubted. 

3.  Dependent  Clauses. — Dependent  clauses  are  usualhj 
set  off  by  commas,  especialUj  when  they  'precede  independent 
clauses.     Thus, 

"If  you  wish  to  win,  you  must  struggle." 


156 


GOOD  ENGLISH. 


A  dependent  clause  is  one  that  modifies  or  completes 
the  meaning  of  another  clause.  It  is  usually  introduced 
by  some  coordinate  conjunction  or  a  conjunctive  adverb, 
and  it  often  precedes  the  clause  on  which  it  depends. 

When  the  dependent  clause  follows  that  on  which  it 
depends,  in  many  cases  it  is  not  set  off  by  a  comma ;  as, 
"  We  will  remain  if  you  do  not  object." 

When  the  dependent  clause  follows  that  on  which  it 
depends,  and  is  introduced  by  "  that,"  it  is  not  set  off 
by  a  comma  unless  "that"  is  equivalent  to  "in  order 
that,"  and  is  placed  at  some  distance  from  the  verb. 
Thus, 

a.  "  I  believe  that  it  will  rain." 

b.  "  I  shall  listen  to  his  arguments,  that  I  may  come  to  a  con- 
clusion for  myself." 

4.  Parenthetical  Expressions.  —  Parenthetical  loords 
and  "phrases  should  he  set  off  by  commas. 

Expressions  are  parenthetical  when  they  are  placed 
between  the  related  parts  of  a  sentence,  but  arc  not 
strictly  essential  to  its  meaning. 

The  following  are  among  the  expressions  commonly 
used  parenthetically : 

Accordingly,  finally,  moreover,         then, 

doubtless,  hovirever,  namely,  therefore, 

consequently,        indeed,  perhaps,  too. 


After  all, 
as  it  were, 
as  it  happens, 
beyond  question, 
for  the  most  part, 
generally  speaking, 
in  the  first  place, 


in  fact, 
in  short, 
in  a  word, 
in  truth, 
in  general, 
no  doubt, 
of  course. 


in  the  mean  time, 
now  and  then, 
in  reality, 
on  the  contrary, 
on  the  other  hand, 
without  doubt, 
you  know. 


Wh(>n  one  of  these  parenthetical   expressions  occurs 


PUNCTUATION.  157 

at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  only  a 
single  comma  is  used  to  separate  the  expression  from 
the  main  part  of  the  sentence. 

When  any  of  these  same  expressions  are  used  to 
modify  some  particular  part  of  the  sentence,  they  lose 
their  parenthetical  character,  and  are  no  longer  set  off 
by  connnas.  Observe  the  use  of  the  word  however  in 
the  following : 

a.  "You  will,  however,  be  late." 

b.  "  However,  you  will  be  late." 

c.  "He  will  do  the  work  however  late  he  may  be." 

Some  words,  known  variously  as  expletives^  inde- 
pendent adverbs,  etc.,  as  nou\  ichy,  well,  yes,  no,  again, 
first,  secondly,  farther,  etc.,  when  they  stand  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  sentence,  are  set  off  by  commas.     Thus, 

"  First,  let  me  make  a  statement." 
"  Well,  we  are  ready  to  go." 
"Why,  that  I  cannot  answer." 

When  now  and  tJicn  or  here  and  there  are  used  to  in- 
troduce contrasted  expressions,  they  are  set  off  by  com- 
mas.    Thus, 

" Noiu,  all  is  peace;  then,  all  was  disorder." 

5.  Intermediate  Expressions. —  Clauses  and  other  ex- 
pressions not  of  a  parenthetical  character,  but  so  placed,  as 
to  come  between  the  essential  parts  of  a  sentence,  are  set  off 
by  commas.     Thus, 

"  Man,  even  in  his  lowest  estate,  is  a  noble  work." 

In  general,  commas  may  set  off  any  of  these  interme- 
diate expressions  when  they  can  be  removed  without 
destroying  the  sense  of  the  sentence.  Thus,  in  the  sen- 
tence, "  Physical  exercise,  es])ecially  in  tlie  open  air,  is 
of  great  importance  to  health,"  the  expression  "  espe- 


158  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

cially  in  the  open  air"  may  be  removed,  and  the 
remainder,  "Physical  exercise  is  of  great  importance 
to  heahh,"  still  conveys  the  chief  thought  without  any 
modification. 

6.  Transposed  Elements.  —  Tmnsjwsed  p^irases  and 
clauses  are  usually  set  off  by  commas.     Thus, 

"  Of  the  many  odd  people  I  have  encountered,  he  was  the 
oddest." 

A  comma  is  placed  after  a  surname  when  it  precedes 
the  Christian  name;  as,  Lindsey,  George  W. ;  Barker, 
R.  S. 

This  arrangement  of  names  is  frequently  made  in 
alphabetical  order  in  lists  and  indexes  for  convenience 
of  reference. 

When  in  transposed  elements  the  connection  is  very 
close,  the  comma  may  be  omitted ;  as,  "  At  noon  we 
started  on  our  journey." 

7.  Series. — In  a  series  of  more  than  two  icords,  all  being 
the  same  part  of  speech,  a  comma  should  fulloiv  each  word  of 
the  series.     Thus, 

"The  air,  the  earth,  the  water,  teem  with  life." 

When  the  conjunction  is  omitted  between  the  last  two 
words  of  a  series,  a  comma  is  placed  after  the  last  unless 
it  is  followed  by  a  single  word  ;  as,  "  Teacher,  jnipils, 
friends,  have  gone." 

When  the  conjunction  is  omitted  between  all  except 
the  last  two  words  of  tbe  series,  a  comma  is  usually  put 
before  the  conjunction,  but  some  writers  omit  it.  The 
following  is  the  usual  form  :  "  Days,  months,  and  years 
have  fled." 

^^'h(•n   the   words   in  a.  series   are  connected  1)V  con- 


PUNCTUATION.  159 

junctions  the  comma  may  be  omitted ;  as,  "  Days  and 
months  and  years  have  fled." 

In  some  cases  where  a  greater  pause  than  usual  is 
desired,  both  conjunctions  and  commas  are  used;  as, 
"  They  suffered,  and  fought,  and  died,  in  their  country's 
cause." 

In  such  expressions  as  "  A  beautiful  little  rose,"  no 
comma  is  used  to  separate  the  adjectives,  for  the  reason 
that  the  first  adjective  seems  to  modify  all  that  follows ; 
but  where  the  successive  adjectives  all  modify  the  noun 
with  equal  force,  they  are  separated  by  commas,  as  in 
the  following:  "A  hard-working,  faithful,  honest  old 
man." 

8.  "Words  in  Pairs.  —  When  words  are  used  in  pairs  a 
comma  should  be  placed  after  each  pair.     Thus, 

"  Houses  and  lands,  offices  and  honors,  gold  and  bonds,  are 
nothing  to  the  man  at  Death's  door." 

9.  "Words  in  Apposition.  —  Words  in  apposition,  to- 
gether ivith  their  adjuncts,  are  set  off  by  commas.     Thus, 

"  Milton,  the  author  of  '  Paradise  Lost,'  was  blind." 
Pres.  James  McCosh,  D.  D.,  LL.D. 

When  the  noun  in  apposition  stands  alone  or  has 
only  an  article  before  it,  no  comma  is  required  between 
it  and  the  word  with  which  it  is  in  apposition.     Thus, 

"  Paul  the  apostle ;"  "  The  poet  Whittier." 

When  several  words  contain  a  description  of  some 
person  or  thing,  if  the  name  be  mentioned  it  should  be 
set  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma ;  as, 
"The  greatest  of  poets,  Homer,  Avas  blind." 

10.  "Words  in  the  "Vocative. — Nouns  in  the  Nomina- 
tive Case  Independent  by  address,  with  their  accompanying 


160  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

words,  are  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 
Thus, 

"  Gentlemen,  are  you  ready  to  hear  me?" 

"  I  am,  my  dear  Sir,  your  friend." 

This  rule  is  applicable  to  the  salutation  in  a  letter. 
Thus, 


-^ 


<^^4fi-^  ^^tct^    etc. 

'e€i4.    '©^^^ 

■ctea-i.    ^Qu4.^ 

Whatever  the  salutation,  it  seems  proper  to  place  a 
comma  after  the  title  on  the  ground  that  the  title,  Avitli 
its  modifying  adjectives,  is  in  the  nominative  case  inde- 
pendent by  address. 

When  the  body  of  a  letter  begins  on  the  same  line  as 
the  salutation,  the  comma  is  followed  by  a  dash.    Thus, 

11.  The  Absolute  Construction. — A  word  placed  in 
the  Nominative    Case  Absolute   is,   with   its  accompanying 


P  UNCTUA  TION.  161 

words,  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma. 
Thus, 

"  Peace  having  been  declared,  the  army  was  disbanded." 

12.  Omission  of  the  Verb.  — TF/ieu  in  a  compound 
sentence  the  verb  is  omitted  in  any  of  tJie  members  following 
the  first,  a  comma  takes  its  place.     Thus, 

"Homer  was  the  greater  genius;  Virgil,  the  better  artist." 

13.  Logical  Subject.  —  When  the  logical  or  complex 
subject  of  a  sentence  ends  ivith  a  verb  of  the  same  form  as 
the  predicate  verb,  or  consists  of  parts  subdivided  by  commas, 
it  is  separated  from  the  predicate  by  a  comma  ;  as, 

"  He  who  breaks,  pays." 

"  Bananas,  oranges,  and  figs,  are  the  chief  exports." 

14.  Quotations. — A  quotation  or  anything  resembling  a 
quotation,  introduced  into  a  sentence,  shoidd  be  preceded  by  a 
comma.    Thus, 

"  Bacon  says,  '  Knowledge  is  power.'  " 

"  The  question  now  is,  Where  shall  we  find  a  desirable  site?" 

If  the  quotation  depends  directly  on  the  word  which 
precedes  it,  no  comma  is  required.     Thus, 

"  The  cry  of  'Down  with  the  traitors!'  rang  through  the  hall." 

15.  Numeral  Figures.  —  When  any  numbers  except 
dates  arc  e.rpressed  by  more  than  three  characters,  they  are 
separated  by  commas  into  groups  of  three,  counting  from  the 
right.     Thus, 

"  The  amount  on  hand  is  $16,437,842." 

16.  Ambiguity". — A  comma  is  sometimes  used  to  prevent 
ambiguity. 

Thus,  "  I  awoke  and  called  my  brother  to  me,"  with- 
out the  comma  means  that  I  awoke  my  brother  and 
called  him  to  me.     With  the  comma,  "  I  awoke,  and 
11 


1(52  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

called  my  brother  to  me,"  means  that  I  became  awake 
and  called  my  brother  to  me. 

The  Semicolon. 

The  Semicolon  is  used  to  separate  parts  of  sentences 
less  closely  connected  than  those  separated  by  commas. 
It  is  used  also  to  separate  the  divisions  when  the  subdi- 
visions are  separated  by  commas. 

The  following  are  the  principal  rules  for  the  use  of 
the  Semicolon : 

1.  Parts  of  Sentences. — A  semicolon  should  be  placed 
between  the  parts  of  a  sentence  ichen  the  subdivisions  of  these 
parts  are  separated  by  commas.     Thus, 

"  Without  dividing,  he  destroyed  party ;  without  corrupting, 
he  made  a  venal  age  unanimous." 

When  the  members  of  a  sentence  are  long,  they  are 
sometimes  separated  by  a  semicolon  though  no  comma 
is  used.     Thus, 

"  Errors  like  straws  upon  the  surface  flow ; 
He  who  would  seek  for  pearls  must  dive  below." 

Some  writers  would  in  the  foregoing  set  off  the  expres- 
sion "  like  straws  "  with  commas,  but  this  is  unnecessary. 
The  golden  rule  in  punctuation  is  to  use  a  punctuation 
mark  only  where  there  is  a  necessity  for  it  in  order  to 
make  the  meaning  clear. 

2.  A  General  Term. — A  general  term  having  several 
particulars  in  apposition  may  be  separated  from  the  particu- 
lars by  a  semicolon.    Thus, 

Nouns  in  English  have  three  cases ;  Nominative,  Possessive, 
and  Objective. 

3.  Short   Sentences.  —  SJiort   sentences   luhich   have  a 


PUNCTUATION.  163 

slight  dependence  on  one  another  as  to  meaning,  are  usually 
separated  by  semicolons.     Thus, 

"  There  is  good  for  the  good ;  there  is  virtue  for  the  virtuous ; 
tliere  is  victory  for  the  valiant ;  there  is  spirituality  for  the  spir- 
itual." 

In  the  apphcation  of  this  rule  usage  differs  somewhat 
Some  writers  prefer  the  colon,  and  others  the  period,  in- 
stead of  the  semicolon,  but  the  best  usage  favors  the 
semicolon. 

4.  Successive  Clauses. — A  semicolon  is  used  to  sepa- 
rate several  successive  clauses  in  a  complex  sentence  when  they 
have  a  common  dependence  on  a  principal  clause.     Thus, 

"When  my  heart  shall  have  ceased  to  throb;  when  my  life 
shall  have  passed  away ;  when  my  body  shall  have  been  con- 
signed to  the  tomb, — then  shall  all  these  things  be  remembered 
in  my  favor." 

Some  writers  prefer  to  separate  the  principal  clause 
from  the  others  by  a  colon,  and  the  others  from  one 
another  by  a  comma  and  a  dash. 

5.  Additional  Clauses.  —  An  additional  claiise  which 
assigns  a  reason,  draws  an  inference,  or  presents  a  contrast, 
may  he  set  off  by  a  semicolon.     Thus, 

"  Straws  float  upon  the  surface  ;  but  pearls  lie  at  the  bottom 
of  the  stream." 

When  the  additional  clause  follows  without  the  use 
of  a  connecting  word,  some  Avriters  use  a  colon  instead 
of  a  semicolon. 

Namely,  for,  but,  yet,  are  some  of  the  words  com- 
monly used  for  connecting  an  additional  clause  to 
express  a  reason  or  a  contrast. 

6.  Before  As. — A  semicolon  shoidd  be  placed  before  "  as  " 
when  it  introduces  an  example.     Thus, 


164  aoOD  ENGLISH. 

"A  noun  is  a  name;  as,  boy,  Henry." 

A  semicolon  is  sometimes  used  before  viz.,  to  icit,  i.  e., 
or  that  is,  when  it  precedes  an  example  or  an  enumera- 
tion of  particulars. 

7.  Yes  and  No. — "  Jcs"  or  "710,"  ivhen  foi'ming  part  of 
an  ansiver  and  folloived  by  a  proiposition,  is  iisuaUy  set  off  by 
a  semicolon.    Thus, 

"Yes;  I  think  it  will  rain." 

When  yes  or  no  precedes  a  vocative  expression,  the 
semicolon  follows  the  expression,  and  a  comma  follows 
yes  or  no.     Thus, 

"No,  my  friends;  I  cannot  endorse  this  platform." 

The  Colon. 

The  Colon  is  used  to  separate  parts  of  sentences  less 
closely  connected  than  those  separated  by  the  semi- 
colon. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  rules  for  the 
use  of  the  Colon  : 

1.  Parts  of  Sentences. — A  colon  should  be  placed  be- 
tween the  parts  of  sentences  ivhose  subdivislo)is  are  separated 
by  semicolons.     Thus, 

"The  article  contained  two  chief  thoughts:  the  first,  that 
the  argument  was  not  sound  ;  the  second,  that  it  _was  not  con- 
vincing." 

2.  Additional  Clauses. — An  additional  clause  not  for- 
mally connected  with  the  preceding  clause  is  set  off  from  the 
latter  by  a  colon.    Thus, 

"  Let  others  hail  the  rising  sun  : 
I  bow  to  him  whose  course  is  run." 

This  rule  did'ers  from  Rule  5  with  reference  to  the 


PUNCTUATION.  165 

semicolon,  chiefly  in  the  omission  of  the  conjunction 
"which  formally  connects  the  clauses. 

3.  Quotations.  —  When  a  quoUition  is  introduced,  but 
not  as  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  it  sJioukl  be  preceded  by 
a  colon.     Til  us, 

"  Foi-  of  all  sad  words  of  tougue  or  pen, 
The  saddest  are  these :  '  It  might  have  been.'  " 

When  a  quotation  follows  such  transitive  verbs  as  snij, 
exclaim,  rcphj,  shout,  cnj,  and  similar  verbs,  as  the  direct 
object,  it  should  be  preceded  by  a  comma  instead  of  a 
colon.     Thus, 

"  The  speaker  said,  '  Gentlemen,  I  am  glad  to  meet  you  on 
this  occasion.' " 

4.  Formal  Introduction. — A  colon  is  placed  after  such 

expressions  as  "  </h'.s,"  "  thoie,^^  "  as  follows,''^  "  the  following,'" 
and  similar  terms,  when  they  j/romise  or  introduce  something, 
whether  a  quotation  or  not.     Thus, 

"  His  words  were  as  follows :  '  Poor  work,  poor  pay.'  " 

5.  Title-Pages. — In  a  title-pjage,  when  an  explanatory  ex- 
pression is  put  in  apposition  with  the  main  title,  without  the 
use  of  a  conjunction,  the  two  are  separated  by  a  colon.    Thus, 

"  Helps  in  the  Use  of  Good  English  :  a  Manual  for  All  who 
Desire  to  Speak  or  Write  Correct  English." 

The  Interrogation  Point. 

The  Interrogation  Point  is  used  to  show  that  a  ques- 
tion is  asked. 

The  following  are  the  chief  rules  for  the  use  of  the 
Interrogation  Point : 

1.  Questions. — An  interrogation  point  should  be  placed 
after  every  direct  question. 


160  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

A  direct  question  is  one  tliat  admits  of  an  answer;  as, 
"Why  do  YOU  not  go?"  An  indirect  question  is  one 
that  is  merely  spoken  of;  as,  "  He  asked  why  you  did 
not  go." 

When  several  questions  are  thrown  together  to  form 
one  sentence,  the  sentence  begins  with  a  capital  letter, 
but  an  interrogation  point  should  follow  each  question. 
Thus, 

"What  is  the  meaning  of  all  this  noise?  of  all  this  confu- 
sion?" 

When,  in  a  series  of  consecutive  questions,  each  is 
distinct  in  itself,  each  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter 
and  each  be  followed  by  an  interrogation  point.     Thus, 

"Does  the  applicant  use  profane  language?"  ^"  Does  he 
smoke?"     "Does  he  idle  away  his  time?" 

W^hen  the  question  is  not  complete  till  the  end  of  the 
sentence  is  reached,  onl}'  one  interrogation  point  should 
be  used.     Thus, 

"  Which  season  do  you  prefer,  summer  or  winter?" 

2.  Doubt. —  The  interrogation  point  is  somethnes  inserted 
in  curves  to  throw  doubt  on  a  statement.    Thus, 

"His  sound  (?)  logic  was  not  convincing." 

The  Exclamation  Point. 

The  Exclamation  Point  is  used  chiefly  to  indicate 
some  emotion. 

The  following  are  the  chief  rules  for  the  use  of  the 
Exclamation  Point : 

1.  Interjections. —  The  exclamation  point  is  placed  after 
an  interjection  when  it  shoivs  strong  emotion.     Thus, 

"  Hurrah  !  we  have  won  the  erame." 


PUNCTUATION.  167 

When  the  emotion  expressed  belongs  to  the  whole 
phrase  or  sentence,  the  exclamation  point  is  usually 
placed  after  the  entire  expression,  rather  than  after  the 
interjection  ;  as,  "  Shame  upon  your  actions !" 

When  an  interjection  is  repeated  several  times  in  suc- 
cession, the  repeated  words  are  separated  by  conmias, 
and  the  exclamation  point  is  placed  after  the  last  onl}' ; 
as,  "  Well,  well !  I  am  sorry  for  this." 

0  is  not  immediately  followed  by  an  exclamation 
point,  but  oh  is  so  followed  unless  the  emotion  runs 
through  the  whole  expression.  In  that  case  oh  is  fol- 
lowed b}^  a  comma,  and  an  exclamation  point  is  placed 
after  the  complete  emotional  expression.     Thus, 

"  Oh,  long  may  it  wave 
O'er  the  land  of  the  free,  and  the  home  of  the  brave !" 

When  the  interjections  eh  and  hey  are  used  at  the  end 
of  questions,  they  should  be  followed  by  interrogation 
points. 

2.  Exclamations.  —  An  exclamation  poiiit  should  be 
placed  after  every  exclamatory  expression.     Thus, 

"  How  very  hot  it  is  !" 

"  '  Glorious  !     Bravo !'  shouted  the  captain." 

More  than  one  exclamation  point  may  be  used  to 
express  wonder,  irony,  contempt,  or  great  surprise. 
Thus, 

"Trust  to  his  honesty  !!     A  thief  is  honest  in  comparison." 

The  exclamation  point  is  sometimes  used  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  interrogation  point,  to  imply  doubt. 
Thus, 

"  Caesar  was  an  honorable  (!)  man." 


168  GOOD  ENGLISH. 


The  Dash. 


The  Dash  is  used  chietiy  to  indicate  a  sudden  change 
in  the  sense  or  tlie  construction  of  a  sentence. 

The  use  of  the  dash  for  other  punctuation  marks  is 
permissible  only  where  none  of  the  others  can  be  cor- 
rectly used.  The  dash  should  not  be  used,  as  it  is  by 
many  writers,  as  a  substitute  for  otlier  marks. 

The  following  are  the  chief  rules  for  the  use  of  the 
Dash  : 

1.  Sudden  Changes. — A  daah  is  used  to  mark  some 
sudden  change  in  the  construction  or  in  the  sense  of  a  sen- 
tence.    Thus, 

"  He  had  no  malice  in  his  mind — 
No  ruffles  on  his  sliirt." 

2.  Parenthesis. —  The  dash  is  sometimes  used  to  set  off 
parenthetic(d  expressions  when  the  connection  is  not  so  close 
as  to  require  a  comma.     Tlius, 

"Those  who  hated  him  most  heartily — and  no  man  was  hated 
more  heartily — admitted  that  his  mind  was  exceedingly  bril- 
liant." 

3.  A  Pause. —  The  dash  is  sometimes  used  to  indicate  a 
pause  made  for  rhetoriccd  effect.     Thus, 

"  It  was  admitted  by  all  that  the  boy  was  quiet  and  well- 
behaved — when  he  was  asleep." 

The  dash  is  used  also  to  denote  an  expressive  pause. 
Thus, 

"The  stream  fell  over  a  precipice — paused — fell — j)au.sed 
again — then  darted  down  the  valley." 

4.  An  Omission. — Tlie  dash  is  sometimes  used  to  denote 
an  omission.     Thus, 

"  Late  in  the  summer  of  18 — ,  the  residents  of were 


P  UNCTUA  TION.  169 

greatly  agitated  over  a  rumor  that  a  railroad  was  to  be  built 
through  the  town." 

"See  Chap.  VI.:  1-5,"  meaning  Chap.  VI.,  verses  1,  2,  3,  4,  5. 

5.  Summing-Up. —  The  dash  is  used  to  denote  a  sum- 
ming-up of  partlcalars.     Tims, 

"  Relatives,  friends,  home, — all  are  gone." 

6.  Repetition.  —  When  a  word  or  an  expression  is  re- 
peated emphatically  for  rhetorical  effect,  the  construction 
beginning  anew,  a  dash  should  he  'placed  before  each  repeti- 
tion.    Thus, 

"  I  wish,"  said  Uncle  Toby,  with  a  deep  sigh — "  I  wish,  Trim, 
I  were  asleep." 

7.  Reflex  Apposition.  —  Wlicn  words  at  the  end  of  a 
sentence  stand  detached  and  are  in  apposition  with  preceding 
parts  of  a  sentence,  they  are  separated  from  the  preceding 
portion  by  a  dash..     Thus, 

"  Three-  of  the  world's  greatest  poems  are  epics — Paradise 
Lost,  The  vEneid,  and  The  Iliad." 

8.  Titles  Run  In. — WJien  a  title  or  a  heading,  instead, 
of  standing  over  a  paragraph,  is  run  in  so  as  to  make  a  part 
of  the  paragraph,  it  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  line  by 
a  dash.     For  illustration  see  the  heading  of  this  rule. 

9.  Dialog-ues. —  The  parts  of  a  conversation  or  a  dia- 
logue, if  run  into  one  paragraph  instead  of  forming  separate 
paragraphs,  are  separated  by  dashes.     Thus, 

"Good  morning,  Mr.  Brooks."— "  Good  morning,  Sir."^"  I 
hope  you  are  well." — "  Thank  you,  I  am  very  well ;  how  are 

you  ?" 

10.  "With  Other  Marks. — A  dash  is  often  placed  after 
other  marks  to  add  effect. 

The  followino:  are  the  chief  instances  : 


170  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

a.  After  a  side-head.     Tlius, 
"  Remark  1.—  " 

h.  Between  the  end  of  a  paragraph  and  the  name  of 
the  author  if  both  are  placed  on  the  same  line.     Thus, 
"  Procrastination  is  the  thief  of  time." —  Young. 

c.  Between  short  quotations  brought  together  in  the 
same  line,  as  in  example  under  Rule  9. 

Marks  of  Parenthesis. 
The  Curves,  or  Marks  of  Parenthesis,  are  used  to 
enclose  such  words  as  break  the  unity  of  a  sentence  and 
have  little,  if  any,  connection  with  the  remaining  part 
of  it.     Thus, 

"To  gain  a  posthumous  reputation  is  to  save  four  or  five  let- 
ters (for  what  is  a  name,  beside)  from  oblivion." 

The  sentence  containing  marks  of  })arenthesis  is  punc- 
tuated as  if  no  parenthetical  part  were  included. 

Whatever  point  maj'  be  needed  is  placed  after  the  last 
curve,  unless  some  other  mark  precedes  the  last  curve, 
in  which  case  the  point  is  placed  before  the  first  curve. 
Thus, 

a.  "  Pride,  in  some  disguise  or  other  (often  a  secret  to  the 
proud  man  himself),  is  the  most  ordinary  spring  of  action 
among  men." 

b.  "  While  we  all  desire  fame,  (and  should  we  not  desire  it?) 
we  should  do  nothing  unfair  to  gain  it." 

The  part  within  the  curves  is  punctuated  according  to 
the  usual  rules,  just  as  if  no  curves  were  used. 

Quotation  Marks. 
A  quotation  is  the  introduction  into  one's  discourse  of 
words  uttered  or  written  by  some  one  else. 


PUNCTUATION.  171 

Quotation  Marks  are  two  inverted  commas  at  the 
beginning,  and  two  apostrophes  at  the  close,  of  the  part 
quoted. 

The  following  are  the  rules  for  the  use  of  Quotation 
Marks : 

1.  Direct  Quotations. — Quotation  marks  arc  used  la 
enclose  a  direct  quotation.     Thus, 

Everett  says,  "  If  we  retrench  the  wages  of  the  schoolmaster, 
we  must  raise  those  of  the  recruiting  sergeant." 

When  other  words  occur  between  the  parts  of  the 
quoted  expression,  only  the  quoted  words  are  enclosed 
by  the  marks.     Thus, 

"  We  can  overcome  the  difficulty,"  said  the  speaker,  "by  per- 
sistent effort." 

When  the  quotation  is  not  direct,  no  quotation  marks 
are  needed.     Observe  the  following : 

a.  Bacon  said,  "  Knowledge  is  power." 

b.  Bacon  said  that  knowledge  is  power. 

2.  A  Quotation  -within  a  Quotation.  —  When  one 
quotation  is  included  within  another,  the  included  quotation 
is  enclosed  with  single  quotation  marks.     Thus, 

These  were  Longfellow's  words  : 

"Life  is  real,  life  is  earnest; 
And  the  grave  is  not  the  goal ; 
'  Dust  thou  art,  to  dust  returnest,' 
Was  not  spoken  of  the  soul." 

If  a  quotation  included  withni  a  quotation  contains 
another  included  quotation,  the  latter  is  enclosed  in 
double  quotation  marks.     Thus, 

I  found  the  following :  "  Some  one  has  said,  '  What  a  world 
of  wisdom  is  contained  in  the  poet's  words,  "  The  grave  is  not 
the  goal."'" 


172  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Notice  that  the  number  of  quotation  marks  at  the  end 
must  balance  those  which  begin  the  quotations. 

3.  Quoted  Paragraphs.  —  When  a  number  of  quoted 
paragraphs  come  in  succession,  the  inverted  commas  precede 
each  paragraph,  but  the  closing  quotation  marks  follow  the 
last  paragraph  only. 

When  a  quotation  is  made,  the  quotation  marks 
should  enclose  the  usual  punctuation  marks  as  well  as 
the  words. 

Observe  the  difference  in  the  following: 

a.  His  remark  was,  "  Why  did  you  not  go?" 

b.  Was  his  remark,  "  Must  you  go  "  or  "  Will  you  go  "  ? 

The  first  sentence  embraces  a  quoted  question ;  the 
second  is  a  question  itself,  and  therefore  is  followed  by 
an  interrogation  point. 

Examples  for  illustration  are  sometimes  enclosed  in 
quotation  marks.     Thus, 

The  word  "  in"  is  sometimes  an  adverb. 

The  Hyphen. 

The  chief  uses  of  the  hyplicn  will  be  found  discussed 
in  connection  with  the  subject  of  Syllabication,  pp.  30-34. 

Other  Marks. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  of  the  other 
marks  used  in  written  and  printed  discourse.  Most  of 
them  are  used  only  by  printers  and  proof-readers. 

Brackets  [  ]  are  used  to  enclose  some  word  or  words 
necessary  to  correct  an  error  or  afford  an  explanation ;  as, 

"Tlicy  [tlie  Puritans]  came  direct  from  Holland." 

Brackets  are  sometimes  used  in  dictionaries  and  works 


PUNCTUATION.  173 

on  language  to  enclose  the  pronunciation  or  the  etymol- 
ogy of  a  word ;  as,  Belles  Lettres  [bel  let'r]. 
;      Brackets  are  used  also  in  dialogues,  dramas,  etc.,  to 
enclose  instructions  to  the  actors. 

The  Apostrophe  [']  is  used  to  indicate  the  omission 
of  letters  or  figures — 

1.  To  form  contractions ;  as,  doesnH  for  does  not,  don't 
for  do  not,  isn^t  for  is  not,  e'e?'  for  ever,  o^er  for  over,  etc. 

2.  To  form  plurals;  as,  6's,  +'s,  S's,  instead  of  6es, 
+es,  Ses. 

3.  To  indicate  the  possessive  form  of  a  noun;  as, 
king^s,  queen^s,  u-'idow''s,  etc.,  the  old  forms  having  been 
kyngis,  queenis,  widdowes,  etc. 

4.  To  indicate  the  century  figures  in  the  case  of  dates; 
as,  '97  for  1897. 

The  Ellipsis,  [*  *  *],  [ ],  [ ],  is  used  to  show 

that  letters  or  words  have  been  omitted ;  as,  President 

C d,  for  President  Cleveland,  or  Mrs.  G***n,  for 

Mrs.  Green. 

The  Section  [§]  denotes  the  smaller  divisions  of  a 
book  or  a  chapter. 

The  Paragraph  [^],  now  rarely  used,  denotes  the 
beginning  of  a  new  paragraph  or  a  new  subject. 

The  Caret   [  a]  is  used  in  writing  to  show  that  some- 

a 
thing  is  to  be  inserted ;  as,"  Mr.  Gry  will  remain  with  us 
a  week."  ^^ 

The  Caret  should  always  be  placed  below  the  line  and 
the  correction  immediately  above  it. 

The  Index  [J6@"]  is  used  to  point  out  something 
special. 

The  Brace  [^  is  used  to  connect  two  or  more  terms 

with  another  term;  as,  Puijils  i  ^.'    '      ' 

I  Girls,  27. 


174  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

The  Ditto  Mark  ["]  is  used  to  indicate  that  the  words 
above  it  are  to  be  repeated  ;  as, 

2  pr.  Shoes,  @  $2.50 $5.00 

6  "        "       @    3.00 18.00 

It  is  not  correct  to  use  the  ditto  mark  to  indicate  the 
repetition  of  the  names  of  persons.  The  following  is 
incorrect : 

Mary  S.  Evans, 
Susan  B.      " 
Samuel  S.  Miles, 
"       G.  Conser. 

The  name  in  either  case  should  be  written  in  full. 

The  Cedilla  [9],  used  in  printing,  and  placed  under 
the  letter  c,  gives  that  letter  the  sound  of  «,  as  in  farade. 

The  Tilde  [^],  placed  over  the  letter  7i,  shows  tiiat  the 
n  is  equivalent  to  n  and  2/,  as  in  canon  [canyon]. 

Tlie  Diaeresis  ["],  placed  over  the  second  of  two  suc- 
cessive similar  vowels,  shows  that  they  belong  to  differ- 
ent syllables,  as  in  "  zoology,"  "  coordinate." 

The  Macron  [~],  placed  over  a  vowel,  shows  that  the 
vowel  has  the  long  sound  ;  as,  "  fde,"  "  fire." 

The  Breve  ["^],  placed  over  a  vowel,  shows  that  the 
vowel  has  the  short  sound;  as,  "^t,"  "fit." 

The  Asterisk  [*],  the  Dagger  [t],  the  Double  Dag- 
ger [J],  the  Section  [§],  the  Parallels  [||],  and  the  Par- 
agraph [^1],  are  generally  used  to  refer  to  marginal 
notes.  Sometimes  figures  and  letters  of  the  al}>habet 
are  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

Leaders  are  dots  used  to  carry  the  eye  from  the 
words  at  the  beginning  of  the  line  to  something  at 
the  end  of  it.     Thus,^ 

Spelling page  44 

Syllabication "     83 


PUNCTUATION.  175 

Book  Notes. 

The  Title-page  of  a  book  is  that  page  of  the  book 
which  contains  the  title.     It  is  usually  the  first  page. 

Running  Titles,  or  Headlines,  are  placed  at  the  tops 
of  the  successive  pages,  and  are  used  to  show  the  name 
of  the  book,  the  subject  treated  of  on  the  page,  or  both. 

Captions,  or  Sub-heads,  are  headings  placed  over 
chapters  or  sections ;  they  stand  in  the  body  of  the 
page,  not  at  the  top. 

Side-heads  are  titles  run  into  the  line  or  made  a  part 
of  it. 

A  Frontispiece  is  a  picture  placed  opposite  the  title- 
page,  and  facing  it. 

A  Vignette  is  a  small  picture,  not  occupying  a  full 
page,  but  placed  among  other  matter  either  on  the  title- 
page  or  in  some  other  part  of  the  book. 

In  preparing  manuscript  for  printing,  one  line  ( ) 

should  be  drawn  under  such  words  as  are  to  be  put 

in  italics;   two  lines  (- J)  under  such  as  are  to  be 

printed  in  small  capitals;   and  three  lines  (  ) 

under  such  as  are  to  be  printed  in  LARGE  CAPI- 
TALS. A  waved  line  {...^^..^  is  placed  under  words 
that  are  to  be  printed  in  bold-faced  type. 

Italics  should  be  used  sparingly.  Inexperienced  writ- 
ers generally  use  underscored  words  too  freely  to  indicate 
emphatic  words. 

Leads  are  thin  plates  of  type-metal  by  which  lines  are 
spaced  aii}:)art.  Matter  spaced  in  this  way  is  said  to  be 
leaded. 

Composing,  as  a  part  of  the  printer's  work,  is  setting 
up  the  type.     The  work  itself  is  called  composition. 

The  quantity  of  printed  matter  is  counted  by  ems. 
An  em  is  the  square  of  the  body  of  the  type  used. 


176  GOOD  ENGLISH. 


A  Corrected  Proof-Sheet. 


OLIVER  WENDELL  HOLMES. 

Dr.  Holmes  ha«  been  likened  to  Thomas   ^ 
hood,  but  there  is  little  in  common  between 
them,  save   the   power/  of  combining  fancy     ^ 

<  I       and  sentc/ment  with  grotesque   drollery  and 

humor.      Hood    under    all    his    whims    and        , 

ea  I    oddities,   concaels    the   vehement  inten   sity    Q 

of    a   reformer.      The    iron   of    the   \Vorld's    /.  c. 
wrongs   has   entered    into    his    soul.     There 

%     isan  undertone  of  sorrow  in  his  lyrics.     His 

A 

X     sarcasm  directed  against  oppression    and  big-       _ 
otry,  at  times  betrays  the  earnestness  of  one 


whose  owK-  withers  have  been  wrung. 
D  .  Holmes  writes  for  I  simply  the  amusement  of 


J^H 


himself  and  his  readers. 


He  deals   only  with  the  vanities,  the  foi- 
bles, and  the  minor  faults  of  mankind,  good^ 
naturedly  and    almost  sympathizingly   sug- 
'W./.    gesting   excuses   fV/r   folly/  which  he  tosses      /  / 
about  on  the  horns  of  ridicule/    Long  may     q 
i:om.  he  Iroe  to  make  broader  the  face  of  our  care- 
ridden  generation,  and  to  realize  for  himself 
the  truth  of  the  wise  mans  declaration  that      C^ 
"A  merry  heart  is  a  continual  feast." 

J.  G.  Whittier.        ^^<f/ 


PUNCTUATION.  177 


EXPLANATION   OP   PROOF-MARKS. 

(^  is  a  mark  showing  an  inverted  letter. 

^  (Dele)  means  take  away. 

X  indicates  a  broken  letter. 

--'  directs  less  space  between  words. 

-— -  over  oe  and  ae  indicates  that  they  are  to  he  printed  oe  or  ae, 

jf  indicates  that  a  space  is  needed  where  a  caret,  /\ ,  is  put. 

3  directs  that  all  space  be  taken  out. 
I    indicates  that  a  space  standis  up. 

[  shows  that  a  word  or  a  line  is  to  be  moved  toward  the  face  of  the 
bracket,  wliichever  way  turned. 

^  denotes  that  a  new  paragraph  is  to  be  made. 

placed  under  letters  or  words  erased  indicate  that  they  are  to 

be  restored.     The  word  Stct  is  placed  in  the  margin. 

tr.  Transpose  words  or  letters.  Sometimes  the  letters  are  written 
correctly  in  the  margin  instead  of  using  tr. 

w.f.  shows  that  the  type  is  of  the  wrong  font,  too  large  or  too 
small. 

I.e.  (lower  case)  directs  that  a  small  letter  be  substituted  for  the 
capital  letter  used. 

/\,  the  caret,  is  used  to  denote  where  an  inserted  correction  is  to  be 
made. 

n  shows  that  the  word  before  which  it  is  placed  should  be  set  in. 

Horn,  means  change  to  Roman  letters. 

Ital.  means  change  to  Italic  letters. 

[/  shows  where  an  apostrophe,  quotation  marks,  or  references,  as 
indicated  in  the  margin,  should  be  placed. 

No  ^  or  No  break  shows  that  a  new  paragraph  is  not  to  be  made. 

When  a  query  is  made  on  the  proof-sheet,  if  the  author  desires 
the  correction  to  be  made,  he  erases  the  (?)  or  Qy.  If  he  does  not 
wish  the  change  made,  he  erases  both  the  Qy.  and  the  correction. 

When  several  words  have  been  left  out,  they  raaj'  be  written  at  the 
bottom  of  the  page,  and  a  line  be  drawn  from  them  to  the  caret  indi- 
cating the  omission. 
12 


178  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Sizes  of  Books. 

The  terms  8vo,  12mo,  16mo,  24mo,  etc.,  indicate  the 
number  of  leaves  into  which  a  printed  sheet  is  folded. 

A  book  is  called  a  Folio  when  the  sheets  on  which  it 
is  printed  are  folded  so  as  to  make  two  leaves. 

In  a  Quarto,  or  4to,  each  sheet  makes  four  leaves. 

In  an  Octavo,  or  8vo,  a  sheet  makes  eight  leaves ;  in 
a  Duodecimo,  or  12mo,  twelve  leaves,  and  so  on. 

Inasmuch  as  sheets  of  printing  paper  now  vary  in 
size,  the  term^  octavo,  duodecimo,  etc.,  do  not  indicate 
definitel}'  the  size  of  the  printed  page. 


LETTER- WRITING.  - 


A  LETTER  consists  properly  of  the  following  parts : 

1.  The  Heading, 

2.  The  Introduction, 

3.  The  Body, 

4.  The  Conclusion, 

5.  The  Superscription. 

The  mechanical  part  of  a  letter  should  receive  due 
attention.  The  appearance  of  a  letter  sometimes  exer- 
cises more  influence  than  the  sentiment  which  it  con- 
tains.    This  is  especially  true  of  letters  of  courtesy. 

The  Heading. 

The  Heading  of  a  letter  consists  of  the  name  of  the 
place  at  which  the  letter  was  written  and  the  date  when 
it  was  written. 

When  a  letter  is  written  from  a  large  city,  the  first 
line  of  the  heading  should  include  the  door-number, 
the  name  of  the  street,  and  the  names  of  the  city  and 
the  state.  The  date  should  occupy  the  second  line. 
Thus, 


When  one  does  not  care  to  have  his  residence  known, 
or  is  not  permanently  located,  the  number  of  the  post- 


180  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

office  box  may  be  given  instead  of  the  door-number. 
Thus, 

In  a  letter  written  from  the  countr}',  or  from  a  village 
or  a  small  town,  the  county  as  well  as  the  state  should 
be  mentioned.     Thus, 

If  the  letter  be  written  from  a  school  or  a  prominent 
hotel,  the  name  of  the  institution  or  the  hotel  may  oc- 
cupy the  first  line  of  the  heading,  in  which  case  the 
heading  may  occupy  three  lines,  as  follows: 


Or, 

Figures  are  employed  only  for  the  door-number,  the 
day  of  the  month,  the  3'ear,  and  the  number  of  the  post- 
office  box. 

When  the  heading  is  short,  it  usually  occupies  but 
one  line.     Thus, 


LETTER  -  WRITING.  181 

When  the  heading  occupies  more  than  one  line,  each 
line  should  begin  a  little  farther  to  the  right  than  the 
preceding  line,  as  in  the  foregoing  examples. 

The  first  line  should  begin  a  little  to  the  left  of  the 
middle  of  the  page.  { 

Every  important  part  of  the  heading  should  begin 
with  a  capital  letter.  ' 

A  period  should  follow  every  abbreviation,  and  the 
parts  should  be  separated  by  commas.  A  period  should 
be  placed  also  at  the  end  of  the  heading. 

The  Date  consists  of  the  month,  the  day  of  the  month, 
and  the  year.  The  day  of  the  month  is  separated  from 
the  year  by  a  comma. 

In  writing  the  date,  either  the  cardinal  or  the  ordinal 
form  may  be  used.     Thus, 

di^f-^-M,  /^    -^^f/,      or        Su/m.  7'^   -^s^/. 

Should  the  ordinal  forms  be  used,  no  period  must  be 
placed  after  them,  as  the}'  are  not  abbreviations. 

By  some  writers  the  date  is  placed  at  the  close  of  the 
letter.  In  such  cases  it  begins  near  the  left  edge  of  the 
page,  and  on  the  line  below  that  on  which  the  signature 
is  placed.  In  such  cases,  also,  the  name  of  the  person  to 
whom  the  letter  is  written  must  appear  in  the  introduc- 
tion. 

Business-men  sometimes  use  figures  to  denote  the 
number  of  the  month;  as,  4/6/ '96,  for  April  6,  1896; 
but  this  is  permissible  only  in  business  letters. 

The  Introduction. 

The  Introduction  consists  of  the  formal  address  and 
the  salutation. 

The  formal  address  varies  with  the  style  of  the  letter. 


182  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

It  consists  of  the  name,  the  title,  and  the  j)kc6  of  business 
or  the  residence  of  the  person  addressed. 

In  some  cases  the  name  and  the  title  alone  are  used 
in  the  address.  While  this  is  not  objectionahle  in  social 
letters,  it  is  not  the  best  form  for  business  letters,  as 
there  would  be  no  way  of  ascertaining  the  ownership 
of  the  letter  in  case  it  were  lost  or  mislaid  without  the 
envelope. 

Titles  should  not  be  omitted,  but  they  should  be  used 
sparingly.  It  is  usually  sufficient  to  use  the  most  jDrom- 
inent  title  of  the  person  addressed. 

The  Address  may  occu]iy  one,  two,  or  three  lines,  each 
line  followed  by  a  comma,  until  the  address  is  complete, 
when  it  should  be  closed  with  a  period. 

The  name  of  the  person  addressed  should  be  written 
plainl}^  and  in  full. 

Titles  are  prefixed  as  follows : 

Mr.  to  a  gentleman's  name ; 

Messrs.  (for  Messieurs)  to  the  names  of  several  gentle- 
men addressed  in  the  same  letter ; 

Master  to  the  name  of  a  boy ; 

Miss  to  the  name  of  an  unmarried  lady  ; 

Misses  to  the  names  of  several  unmarried  ladies  ad- 
dressed in  the  same  letter; 

3frs.  (mistress)  to  the  name  of  a  married  lady  or  a 
W'idow ; 

Mesdames  (mil  diim')  to  the  names  of  several  married 
ladies  or  widows  addressed  in  the  same  letter; 

Dr.  (plural  Drs.)  to  the  name  of  a  physician ; 

Rev.  (plural  Revs.)  to  the  name  of  a  clergyman,  or 
Rev.  Mr.  if  his  Christian  name  is  unknown  to  you; 

Rev.  Dr.,  or  Rev. ,  D.  D.,  if  the  clergyman  is 

a  doctor  of  divinity. 

Only  one  title   of  courtesy  should  be   aflixed  to  a 


LETTER -WRITING.  183 

name.  Thus,  it  would  be  incorrect  to  write  "  Mr. 
George  Johnson,  Esq.,"  both  titles  meaning  popularly 
the  same  thing. 

In  the  case  of  married  ladies,  however,  it  is  correct, 
according  to  the  best  usage,  to  affix  the  title  of  cour- 
tesy Mrs.^  and  at  the  same  time  the  honorary  or  profes- 
sional title  of  her  husband ;  as,  Mrs.  General  Grant, 
Mrs.  Dr.  Bush. 

Two  or  more  literary  or  professional  titles  may  be 
used  with  the  same  name,  provided  none  of  them  in- 
clude any  of  the  others.  In  such  cases  they  should  be 
Avritten  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  which  is  prob- 
ably the  order  in  which  they  were  conferred,  using  the 
highest  title  last.     Thus,  "  W.  H.  Hodson,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D." 

In  addressing  a  person,  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  all 
his  titles  if  there  are  more  than  one.  John  P.  Smith, 
LL.D.,  or  Dr.  John  P.  Smith,  is  quite  as  expressive  on 
an  envelope  as  John  P.  Smith,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.,  LL.D. 

The  place  of  business  or  residence,  sometimes  called  the 
inside  address,  should  give  the  name  of  the  person's 
post-office  and  the  state  in  which  it  is  situated.     Thus, 

If  the  post-office  be  in  a  city  of  considerable  size,  the 
door-number  and  also  the  name  of  the  street  should  be 
given.     Thus, 


c/^ti.    S^4^    Cy^^t^  <^/., 


■^■a.^mc/e^c^,    Of.  ^. 


184  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

The  Salutation. — The  complimentfiry  salutation  va- 
ries with  the  degree  of  formality  of  the  letter  or  the 
position  occupied  by  the  persons  addressed. 

Strangers  are  addressed  as  Sir,  Madam,  Rev.  Sir,  Gen- 
eral, etc.,  though  the  first  two  of  these  should  be  avoided 
as  far  as  possible  as  being  too  stiff  and  formal. 

Acquaintances  may  be  addressed  as  Dear  Sir,  Dear  Ma- 
dam, Dear  Miss  Cla7'k,  etc.,  and  the  same  forms  are  used 
generally  in  social  and  in  business  correspondence. 

Friends  are  usually  addressed  as  Dear  Friend,  Dear  Alice, 
Friend  Johnson,  My  dear  Friend,  etc. 

Near  Relatives  and  other  close  friends  are  usually  ad- 
dressed as  My  dear  Daughter,  My  dear  Child,  My  dear 
Alary,  etc. 

When  addressing  a  firm,  consisting  of  several  persons, 
the  term  Sirs  or  Dear  Sirs,  or  tlie  word  Gentlemen,  may  be 
used  as  the  salutation. 

Never  use  Dr.  as  an  abbreviation  of  Dear,  or  Gents,  for 
Gentlemen;  neither  is  correct. 

A  military  or  a  naval  officer  is  saluted  by  liis  oflicial 
title,  as  Captain,  Major,  Commodore,  or  Ijy  the  title  Sir. 

A  Governor  IP.  addressed  as  Governor,  His  Excellency,  or  Sir. 

The  President  is  addressed  as  His  Excellency,  or  as 
President  . 

A  married  lady  or  an  elderly  unmarried  lady  is  ad- 
dressed in  business  letters  as  Madam,  Dear  Madam,  or 
My  dear  Madam. 

In  addressing  a  young  unmarried  lady,  the  salutation 
is  by  some  omitted.     Thus, 


LETTER -WRITING.  185 

This  form  is  used  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  the  word 
"  Miss."  It  would  seem  better,  however,  to  address 
young  unmarried  ladies  by  the  same  term,  Madam,  as 
the  married,  inasmuch  as  the  word  "  Miss,"  preceding 
the  name,  shows  that  the  lady  is  unmarried. 

There  is  no  objection  to  the  following  form : 


The  address  is  usually  placed  in  the  next  line  after 
the  heading,  or  the  next  line  but  one.  It  should  begin 
at  the  left  side  of  the  page  near  the  margin,  and  when  it 
occupies  more  than  one  line  each  line  should  begin  a 
little  farther  to  the  right  than  the  one  23receding. 

Sometimes  the  address  is  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
letter,  beginning  on  the  line  next  below  the  signature, 
but  at  the  left  side  of  the  page,  in  the  same  position  as 
if  written  before  the  body  of  the  letter. 

The  salutation  should  follow  the  address  on  the  next 
line  below,  and  should  be  followed  by  a  comma  because 
the  noun  is  in  the  Nominative  Case  Independent  by 
address. 

When  the  address  consists  of  but  one  line,  the  saluta- 
tion should  begin  about  an  inch  to  the  right  of  the  mar- 
ginal line.     Thus, 

^^^^    @^;, 

When  the  address  consists  of  two  lines,  the  salutation 
should  begin  about  an  inch  farther  to  the  right  than  the 


186  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

beginning  of  the  second  line  of  the  address,  but  it  may 
begin  under  the  beginning  of  the  first  line.     Thus, 


(Df(Q,e(ld4<i:     Si^-c/a-n   ^  (^f^c'^-cei^^d.^ 


(^^..^,    C^^ 


e€i't    ^kjTud-. 


r 


a-a-cid  d-B's^'i  ud,    -e-^c-. 


When  the  address  consists  of  three  lines,  the  saluta- 
tion should  begin  under  the  first  letter  or  figure  of  the 
second  line,  but  it  may  begin  under  the  first  letter  of 
the  first  line.     Thus, 

Gin^ed-j-id.    ((j-u-a^yid   (/   ^^(^-^ 


d^'7'i^    ^H'TS     -ez     -ciia/c     /u-^     -^Ae-     ■eii^tn-H^^'t,     -e-^, 

^Yhen  there  is  no  address  preceding  the  salutation, 
the  latter  should  begin  at  the  marginal  line.     Thus, 

■ieacA'B^  'Uii')-tz£.  ^€d-i€.4.-c/ei^ .        Cy   dA-a^t^ ■^'e^   ■e^c. 

Cautions. 
Note  the  following  cautions : 

1.' Separate  the  i)arts  of  the  address  by  commas,  and 
place  a  period  at  the  close  of  the  address. 


LETTER  -  WRITING.  187 

2.  Begin  every  imj^ortant  word  of  the  address  with  a 
capital  letter. 

3.  Begin  the  first  word  and  every  noun  in  the  saluta- 
tion with  a  capital  letter. 

4.  Place  a  comma  after  the  salutation  unless  the  body 
of  the  letter  begins  on  the  same  line,  in  which  case  place 
a  comma  and  a  dash  after  the  salutation. 

5.  Do  not  begin  any  two  successive  lines  of  the  head- 
ing, the  introduction,  the  conclusion,  or  the  superscrip- 
tion of  a  letter,  at  the  same  vertical  line. 


The  Body  of  the  Letter 

The  Body  of  a  letter  is  that  which  contains  what 
is  communicated  from  the  writer  to  the  person  ad- 
dressed. 

When  the  introduction  consists  of  three  lines  or  less, 
the  body  of  the  letter  should  begin  on  the  next  line 
below,  the  first  word  beginning  a  little  to  the  right  of 
the  first  word  of  the  preceding  line.     Thus, 


When  the  introduction  consists  of  more  than  three 
lines,  the  body  of  the  letter  may  begin  on  the  same  line 
as  the  salutation.  In  this  case  a  dash  should  follow  the 
comma  after  the  salutation.     Thus, 


188  GUOD  ENGLISH. 


^■a-,     (J/^: 


The  body  of  a  letter  should  vary  in  style  and  length 
according  to  its  character.  The  language  should  be  nat- 
ural, and  not  stilted  or  florid.  The  penmanship  should 
be  neat  and  legible,  devoid  of  flourishes,  erasures,  blots, 
interlineations,  crosslines,  and  everything  else  that  will 
detract  from  its  neatness  or  from  ease  in  reading  it. 

Business  letters  should  be  short,  omitting  nothing  that 
is  necessary,  and  avoiding  all  repetitions  and  unneces- 
sary explanations. 

The  body  of  a  letter  should  continue  on  the  succeed- 
ing pages  in  their  regular  order,  beginning  with  the  first. 

The  Conclusion. 

The  Conclusion  of  a  letter  consists  of  the  compliment- 
ary close  and  the  signature. 

The  fornjs  of  the  complimentary  close  vary  according 
to  the  relations  of  the  writer  and  the  person  addressed, 
but  they  should  always  harmonize  with  the  salutation. 
Thus,  Yours  truly  and  Truly  yours  may  be  used  with  Dear 
Sir  or  Dear  Madam,  or  be  confined  to  business  letters. 
Sincerely  yours  denotes  a  greater  degree  of  friendship. 
Cordially  yours  is  a  still  stronger  expression.  To  begin 
a  letter  witli  My  dear  Friend  and  close  it  with  Yours 
respectfully,  or  Yours  truly,  would  be  a  serious  blunder. 
A  letter  beginning  with  My  dear  Friend  would  require 


LETTER-WRITING.  189 

some  degree  of  affection  to  be  expressed  in  the  compli- 
mentary close ;  as,  Your  devoted  friend^  Faithfully  yours, 
or  Affectionately  yours. 

Official  letters  close  in  a  more  formal   manner.     A 
common  form  is  the  following: 

■ul'/z   -J7t-i-icA  ■iediteC't^ 


Or  the  followins; : 


cJb ©^ 


Or, 


Cy  tz-T^^    ^^e-tz-t    @^'/, 


These  forms,  however,  frequently  take  as  substitutes 
"Yours  respectfully"  or  "Very  respectfully." 
Note  the  following  cautions : 

1.  Never  close  a  letter  with  the  form  "  Yours,  etc." 

2.  In  closing  a  letter  begin  each  line  of  the  compli- 
mentary close  with  a  capital  letter,  but  do  not  begin  the 
other  words  with  capitals.  Instead  of  writing  Yours  Very 
Tndy,  or  Your  Devoted  Friend,  write  Yours  very  tndy,  Your 
devoted  friend. 

The  Signature. — The  Signature,  consisting  of  the  name 
of  the  person  who  writes  the  letter,  should  be  placed  at 


190  GOOD  ENGLISn. 

the  bottom  of  the  letter,  immediately  following  the  com- 
plimentary close. 

In  letters  of  importance  the  writer's  name  should  be 
signed  in  full. 

A  letter  w'hich  by  accident  or  otherwise  goes  astray  is 
sent  to  the  Dead  Letter  Office,  where  it  is  opened  and 
returned  to  the  writer  if  it  contains  his  name  and  ad- 
dress. 

The  signature  should  be  plainly  written.  The  writer 
should  remember  that  while  he  or  his  friends  may  be 
able  to  recognize  his  signature,  however  poorly  written, 
he  has  no  riglit  to  puzzle  others  with  his  illegible  writ- 
ing. 

In  writing  to  a  stranger  or  an  inferior,  it  is  proper  for 
a  lady  to  sign  her  name  with  her  title  prefixed.     Thus, 

Or,  /hik^'ddj  Q^ie  (^    ^^-e/dcn. 

c^-id.  c^ht^'^y-  cJh.   (§-v-€i^r%d. 

A  married  woman  may  use  her  husband's  name  and 
initials.     Thus, 

A  widow  should  use  her  own  name  and  initials.   Thus, 

The  Superscription. 
The  Superscription,  or  address  on  the  envelope,  con- 
sists of  the  name  of  the  person  to  whom  the  letter  is 
written,  together  with  his  proper  title  and  post-office 
address. 


LETTER -WRITING.  191 

Care  should  be  taken  to  make  this  address  plain,  that 
the  letter  may  not  be  miscarried  or  lost.  It  is  said  that 
millions  of  letters  are  sent  every  year  to  the  Dead  Let- 
ter Ofhce,  many  of  them  because  poorly  or  improperly 
directed. 

A  proper  address  gives  the  title,  the  name,  the  post- 
office,  the  county,  and  the  state. 

All  the  "words  in  the  superscription  except  prepositions 
and  articles  should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

A  period  should  follow  every  abbreviation,  and  one 
should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the  complete  address. 

A  comma  should  follow  each  line  to  separate  the  parts 
of  the  address.     Thus, 


<i^i^<i'^.    c/^Q-e 


a(Qe'^'i-y. 


Letters  addressed  to  a  city  may  omit  the  county,  but 
they  should  have  the  door-number  and  the  name  of  the 
street,  or  the  number  of  the  post-office  box. 

The  practice  of  writing  the  superscription  in  any  other 
than  a  horizontal  direction  is  not  in  good  taste. 

The  superscription  should  begin  near  the  middle  of 
the  envelope  vertically,  and  usually  near  the  left  edge. 
The  other  lines  should  begin  each  a  little  farther  to  the 
right  than  its  j)redecessor,  so  that  the  name  of  the  state 
comes  near  the  lower  right-hand  corner. 

When  a  person's  official  designation  is  given  in  full,  it 
forms  the  second  line  of  the  superscription. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  write  the  abbreviations  of  the 


192  GOOD  ENGLISH, 

names  of  the  states  distinctly.  Pa.  and  fa.,  Penn.  and 
Tenn.,  N.  Y.  and  N.  J.,  are  those  which  are  most  Hkely  to 
be  confounded. 

When  the  name  of  the  county  is  written  in  the  lower 
left-hand  corner  of  the  envelope,  it  should  be  followed 
by  a  comma,  as  it  is  fully  as  much  a  part  of  the  address 
as  if  placed  immediately  above  the  name  of  the  state. 

Invitations  and  Regrets. 

An  Invitation  is  a  formal  note  of  courtesy.  Invita- 
tions are  usually  written  in  the  third  person,  and  when 
so  written  the  answer  also  must  be  in  the  third  person. 

Answers  to  invitations  are  eiihex  Acceptance8  ov  Regrets. 

An  acceptance  is  an  affirmative  answer;  a  regret  is  a 
formal  note  which  explains  a  non-acceptance. 

Many  invitations  contain  the  letters  R.  S.  V.  P.  at  the 
close.  Tiiese  are  the  initials  of  Bepondez  sHl  vous  plait, 
mcanincr,  "  Answer,  if  you  please." 

Most  invitations  do  not  need  an  answer  if  tlic  person 
intends  to  accept.  A  failure  to  reply  is  understood  to 
be  an  acceptance. 

An  invitation  to  dinner  or  tea,  however,  requires  a 
prompt  answer  of  either  acceptance  or  regrets. 

Answers  to  invitations  to  weddings,  balls,  receptions, 
etc.,  should  be  sent  not  later  than  the  third  day  after 
receiving  the  invitation. 

The  answer  to  an  ilivitation  should  be  acknowledged 
and  addressed  to  the  person  in  whose  name  the  invita- 
tion is  given.  If  given  by  a  lady  and  a  gentleman  to- 
gether, it  should  be  acknowledged  to  both,  but  be 
addressed  on  the  envelope  to  the  lady. 

A  regret  should  always  state,  at  least  in  general  terras, 
the  reason  why  the  person  invited  cannot  accept,  and 
this  statement  should  be  as  brief  as  possible. 


LETTER  -  WRITING.  193 

One  may  regret  that  "  a  previous  engagement,"  "  in- 
tended absence,"  "sickness  in  the  family,"  or  some  sim- 
ilar reason  prevents  acceptance. 

Abbreviations  are  not  in  good  taste  in  invitations, 
acceptances,  or  regrets.  Initials  may,  however,  be  used. 
Thus,  we  may  write  Mr.  and  Mrs.  G.  G.  Adams,  but  not 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Geo.  G.  Adams. 

Hints  on  Letter -Writing. 
Letters  of  introduction  are  usually  delivered  in  per- 
son. They  should,  therefore,  be  left  unsealed.  If  they 
are  to  be  delivered  personally,  the  name  of  the  person 
to  be  introduced  may  be  written  on  the  lower  left-hand 
corner  of  the  envelope,  somewhat  like  the  following : 

Introducinfj  Mr.  Geo.  H.  Fox. 

All  favors  or  courteous  attentions  that  require  ac- 
knowledgment should  be  acknowledged  promptly. 

Letters  about  one's  own  affairs,  when  requiring  an 
answer,  should  contain  a  postage  stamp  or  a  stamped 
envelope  for  return  postage. 

When  one  has  been  on  a  visit  to  a  friend  living  at 
some  distance,  he  should,  on  returning  home,  write  at 
once  of  his  safe  arrival  and  of  his  appreciation  of  the 
hospitality  he  enjoyed. 

Social  letters  should  never  be  written  on  foolscap 
paper  or  half  sheets. 

One  should  sign  his  full  name  in  writing  to  a 
stranger. 

A  note  written  in  the  third  person  should  never  have 
the  writer's  signature  attached. 

In  replying  to  a  note  written  in  the  first  person  it  is 
considered  highly  impolite  for  the  one  who  replies  to 
use  the  third  person. 

13 


194 


GOOD  ENGLISH. 


It  is  not  good  taste  for  a  writer  to  prefix  his  title  to 
Lis  name  in  putting  his  signature  to  a  letter. 

A  letter  of  introduction,  if  sent  by  mail,  should  be 
sealed,  and  contain  the  card  of  the  person  introduced. 

Never  write  an  anonymous  letter. 

Important  Abbreviations. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  most  important  abbre- 
viations used  in  printing: 

A.  A.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Amer- 
ican Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences. 

A.  B.  or  B.  A.,  Bachelor  of 
Arts. 

A.  B.  C.  F.  M.,  American  Board 
of  Commissioners  for  For- 
eign Missions. 

Acct.,  Account. 

A.  D.,  In  the  year  of  our  Lord. 

ad  lib.  [nd  libituni),  at  })leasure. 

Adjt.,  Adjutant. 

Adjt.  Gen.,  Adjutant  General. 

^t.  or  set.,  of  age,  aged. 

Ala.,  Alabama. 

Alex.,  Alexander. 

A.  M.,  Before  noon ;  Master  of 
Arts. 

And.,  Andrew. 

Anon.,  Anonymous. 

Ans.,  Answer. 

Arch.,  Archibald. 

Ark.,  Arkansas. 

Art,  Article. 

Ar.  Ter.,  Arizona  Territory. 

Att'y  Gen.,  Attorney  General. 

Aug.,  August;  Augustus. 


B.  A.,  British  America. 

Bart.,  Baronet. 

Bbl.  or  bbl.,  barrel,  barrels. 

B.  C,  Before  Christ. 

B.  C.  L.,  Bachelor  of  the  Civil 

Law. 
B.  D.,  Bachelor  of  Divinity, 
Bds.   or   bds..    Boards    (bound 

in). 
Benj.,  Benjamin. 
B.  M.,  Bachelor  of  Medicine. 
Bp.,  Bishop. 

Br.  Col.,  British  Columbia. 
Brig.  Gen.,  Brigadier  General. 
Bro.,  Brother ;  Bros.,  Brothers. 
B.  S.,    Bachelor     of    Science ; 

Bachelor  of  Surgery, 
bu.,  bushel,  bushels. 
Cal.,  California. 
Can.,  Canada. 
Cant.,    Canticles,    or    Song   of 

Solomon. 
Cap.  [cnpiit),  Chapter. 
Caps.,  Capitals. 
Capt.,  Captain. 
Capt.  Gen.,  Captain  General. 
Cath.,  Catherine. 


ABBEE  VIA  TIONS. 


195 


C.  B.,  Cape  Breton  ;  Compan- 
ion of  the  Bath. 

C.  E.,  Canada  East ;  Civil  En- 
gineer. 

C.  or  Cent.,  Centigrade. 

Cf.  [confer],  Compare. 

C.  H.,  Coiirt-Hoiise. 

Cliap.,  Cliapter,  Cliapters. 

Clias.,  Cliarles. 

Cliron.,  Clironicles. 

C.  J.,  Chief  Justice. 

Co.,  Company ;  County. 

C.  0.  D.,  Collect  on  Delivery. 

Col.,  Colonel. 

Colo.,  Colorado. 

Com.,  Commander ;  Commo- 
dore. 

Conn.,  Connecticut. 

Cor.,  Corinthians. 

C.  P.,  Common  Pleas. 

ct.,  cent,  cents. 

cu.  ft.,  cubic  feet. 

cu.  in.,  cubic  inch,  cubic  inches. 

C.  W.,  Canada  West. 
cwt.,  hundred-weight, 
d.,  days ;  pence. 
Dan.,  Daniel. 

D.  C.  [da  capo),  Repeat. 

D.  C,  District  of  Columbia. 

D.  C.  L.,  Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 

D.  D.,  Doctor  of  Divinity. 

Dec,  December. 

dec,  declination. 

deg.,  degree,  degrees. 

Del.,  Delaware. 

Dele  {^),  Erase 

Dist.  Att'y,  District  Attorney. 

D.  M.,  Doctor  of  Music 


'  do.  (ditto),  the  same. 
[  Dr.,  Debtor;  Doctor. 
D.  Sc,  Doctor  of  Science. 

D.  V.  [Deo  volente),  God  will- 
ing. 

dwt.,  pennyweight. 
E.,  East. 

EccL,  Ecclesiastes. 
Ed.,  Editor ;  Eds.,  Editors. 
Edm.,  Edmund. 
Edw.,  Edward. 

e.g.  [exempli  gratia),  for  exam- 
ple. 

E.  I.,  East  Indies, 
Eliz.,  Elizabeth. 
Eph.,  Ephraim. 

Esq.,  Esquire  ;  plur.,  Esqs. 

Esth.,  Esther. 

et  al.  [et  alii),  and  others. 

et  seq.  (ei  sequentia),  and  fol- 
lowing. 

etc.  or  &c.  [et  ccetera),  and  so 
forth. 

Ex.,  Example ;  Exodus. 

Exc,  Exception. 

Ez.,  Ezra. 

Ezek.,  Ezekiel. 

F.,  Fahr.,  Fahrenheit. 

F.  A.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Anti- 
quarian Society. 

fath.,  fathom,  fathoms. 
Feb.,  February. 
Fig.,  Figure,  Figures. 
Fla.,  Florida. 
F.  M.,  Field  Marshal, 
fol.,  folio,  folios. 
Fran.,  Francis. 
Fred.,  Frederic. 


196 


GOOD  ENGLISH. 


ft.,  foot,  feet. 

Ft.,  Fort. 

fur.,  furlong,  furlongs. 

Ga.,  Georgia. 

Gal.,  Galatiiins. 

gal.,  gallon,  gallons. 

Gen.,  General ;  Genesis. 

Geo.,  George. 

Gov.,  Governor. 

Gov.  Gen.,  Governor  General. 

gr.,  grain,  grains. 

h.,  hour,  hours. 

H.  B.  M.,  His  or  Her  Britannic 

Majesty. 
Ileb.,  Hebrews, 
lihd.,  hogshead,  hogsheads. 
H.  M.,  His  or  Her  Majesty. 
Hon.,  Honorable. 
H.  R.  H.,  His  Royal  Highness, 
ib.  or  ibid,  [ibidem),  in  the  same 

place, 
id.  {ide7n),  the  same. 
Id.,  Idaho, 
i.  e.  [id  est],  that  is. 
I.  H.  S.  {Jesus  hominuni  Salva- 

ior),    Jesus,   the    Savior    of 

men. 
111.,  Illinois. 

incog.  {inco[/nito) ,  unknown. 
Ind.,  Indiana. 
Ind.  Ter.,  Indian  Territory. 
Insp.  Gen.,  Inspector  General, 
inst.,  instant,  the  present  niontli. 
la.,  Iowa. 
I.  O.  O.  F.,  Independent  Order 

of  Odd  Fellows. 
Isa.,  Isaiah. 
Jac,  Jacob. 


Jam.,  Jamaica. 

Jan.,  January. 

Jas.,  James. 

Jer.,  Jeremiah. 

Jona.,  Jonathan. 

Jos.,  Joseph. 

Josh.,  Joshua. 

J.  P.,  Justice  of  the  Peace. 

Jr.  or  Jun.,  Junior. 

Jud.,  Judith. 

Judg.,  Judges. 

Kan.,  Kansas. 

Kt.,  Knight. 

Ky.,  Kentucky. 

L.,  £,  or  1.,  pounds  sterling. 

La.,  Louisiana. 

Lat.,  Latitude. 

lb.  [libra),  pound  or  pounds,  in 
weight. 

L.  C,  Lower  Canada. 

Lev.,  Leviticus, 

L.  I.,  Long  Island. 

Lib.  [liber),  Book. 

Lieut.,  Lieutenant. 

Lieut,  Col.,  Lieutenant  Col- 
onel, 

Lieut.  Gen.,  Lieutenant  Gen- 
eral. 

Lieut.  Gov.,  Lieutenant  Gov- 
ernor. 

LL.B.,  Bachelor  of  Laws, 

LL.l).,  Doctor  of  Laws. 

Lon.  or  Long.,  Longitude. 

L.  S.  (locus  siyiUi),  place  of  the 
seal. 

M.  or  Mons.,  Monsieur. 

M.  (meridies).  Noon. 

m.,  miles;  meters. 


ABBBEVIATIOXS. 


197 


M.  A.,  Master  of  Arts. 
Mad.,  Madam. 
Mag.,  Magazine. 
Maj.  Gen.,  Major  General. 
Mass.,  Massachusetts. 
Matt.,  Matthew. 
M,  B.,  Bachelor  of  Medicine. 
M.  C,  Member  of  Congress. 
M.  D.,  Doctor  of  Medicine. 
Md.,  Maryland. 
Me.,  Maine. 

Mem.,    Memorandum,    Memo- 
randa. 
Messrs.,  Messieurs,  Gentlemen. 
Mgr.,  Monsignor. 
Mich.,  Michigan, 
min.,  minutes. 
Minn.,  Minnesota. 
Miss.,  Mississippi. 
Mile.,  Mademoiselle. 
MM.,  Messieurs,  Gentlemen. 
Mme.,  Madame. 
Mo.,  ]Missouri. 
mo.,  month,  months. 
Mons.,  Monsieur. 
M,  P.,  Member  of  Parliament. 
Mr.,  Mister. 
Mrs.,  Mistress. 
MS.,  Manuscript. 
MSS.,  Manuscripts. 
Mt.,  Mount,  Mountain. 
Mts.,  Mountains. 
Mont.,  Montana. 
Mus.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Music. 
Mus.  D.,  Doctor  of  Music. 
N.,  North. 

N.  A.,  North  America. 
Nath.,  Nathaniel. 


N.  B.  {nota  bene),  Mark  well. 

N.  B.,  New  Brunswick. 

N.  C,  North  Carolina. 

N.  E.,  New  England ;  North- 
east. 

Neb.,  Nebraska. 

Nev.,  Nevada. 

N.  F.,  Newfoundland. 

N,  H.,  New  Hampshire. 

N.  J.,  New  Jersej% 

N.  M.,  New  Mexico. 

N.  O.,  New  Orleans. 

No.,  Number ;  Nos.,  Numbers. 

Nov.,  November. 

N.  S.,  Nova  Scotia. 

Num.,  Numbers. 

N.  W.,  Northwest. 

N.  Y.,  New  York. 

O.,  Ohio. 

Oct.,  October. 

Ont.,  Ontario. 

Or.,  Oregon. 

oz.,  ounce,  ounces. 

P.  or  p.,  page ;  pp.,  pages. 

P.  E.  I.,  Prince  Edward  Island. 

Pa.,  Pennsylvania. 

Per  ct.,  by  the  hundred. 

Ph.  D.,  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

Pinx.  {Pinxit)^  He  painted  it. 

pk.,  peck,  pecks. 

P.  M.,  Postmaster. 

P.  M,  [post  meridiem),  after- 
noon. 

P.  O.,  Post-Office. 

Pop.,  Population. 

P.  P.  C.  [pour  prendre  conge),  to 
take  leave. 

Pref.,  Preface. 


198 


GOOD  ENGLISH. 


Pres.,  President. 
Prof.,  Professor. 
Pro  teui.  [pro  tempore),  for  the 

time  being. 
I'rov.,  Proverbs, 
prox.     (proximo),      the      next 

month. 
P.  S.  ( post  scripfum),  Postscript. 
Ps.,  Psalm,  Psalms, 
pt.,  pint,  pints, 
qt.,  quart,  quarts, 
q.  V.  (quod  vide),  which  see. 
Qy.,  Query. 
E.,  R.  {Recipe),  take. 
rd.,  rod,  rods. 
Regt.,  Regiment. 
Rem.,  Remark,  Remarks. 
Rep.,  Reports. 

Rev.,  Reverend ;  Revelation. 
R.  I.,  Rhode  Island. 
R.  N.,  Royal  Navy. 
Rom.,  Romans. 
R.  R.,  Railroad. 
Rt.  Hon.,  Right  Honorable. 
Rt.  Rev.,  Right  Reverend. 
S.,  South. 

s.,  seconds,  shillings. 
S.  A.,  South  America. 
Sam.,  Samuel. 
S.  C,  South  Carolina. 

S.  caps.,  SMALL  CAPITALS. 

S.  E.,  Southeast, 

sec,  second,  seconds. 

Sect.,  Section,  Sections. 

Sept.,  September. 

Ser.,  Series. 

Serg.,  Sergeant. 

Serg.  Maj.,  Sergeant  Major. 


S.  J.,  Society  of  Jesus. 
Sol.,  Solomon. 

Sol.  Gen.,  Solicitor  Oeneral. 
sp.  gr.,  .specific  gravity, 
sq.  ft.,  square  foot  or  feet, 
sq.  in.,  square  inch  or  inches, 
sq.  m.,  square  mile  or  miles, 
sq.  rd.,  square  rod  or  rods, 
sq.  yd.,  square  yard  or  yards. 
SS.  {scilicet),  Namely. 
St.,  Saint ;  Street ;  Strait. 
Stat.,  Statute,  Statutes. 
S.  T.  D.  [Sanctce  Theologice  Doc- 
tor), Doctor  of  Divinity. 
Stet,  Let  it  stand. 
Supt.,  Superintendent. 
Surg.  Gen.,  Surgeon  General. 
Surv.  Gen.,  Surveyor  General. 
S.  W.,  Southwest. 
T.,  ton,  tons ;  tun,  tuns. 
Tenn.,  Tennessee. 
Ter.,  Territory. 
Tex.,  Texas. 
Theo.,  Theodore. 
Theoph.,  Theophilus. 
Thos.,  Thomas. 
Tim.,  Timothy. 
Treas.,  Treasurer. 
U.  C,  Upper  Canada, 
ult.  {ultimo),  the  last  month. 
U.  S.,  United  States. 
U.  S.  A.,  United  States  Army. 
U.  S.  M.,  United  States  Mail". 
U.  S.  N.,  United  States  Navy, 
vs.  [versus],  against. 
Va.,  Virginia. 
V.  P.,  Vice-President, 
vid.  [vide),  see. 


ABBREVIA  TIONS. 


199 


viz.  {videlicet),  to  wit,  namely. 

Vol.,  Volume;  Vols.,  Volumes. 

Vt.,  Vermont. 

W.,  West. 

Wash.,  Washington. 

W.  I.,  West  Indies. 

Wis.,  Wisconsin. 


wk.,  week,  weeks. 

Wm.,  William. 

Wy.,  Wyoming. 

W.  Va.,  West  Virginia. 

Xmas.,  Christmas. 

yd.,  yard,  yards. 

y.  or  yr.,  year,  years. 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS. 


Noun  Synonyms. 

Sy.voxyms  are  words  having  nearly  the  same  meaning, 
with  shades  of  difference.  The  following  are  among  the 
most  prominent  synon^-ms,  in  the  correct  use  of  which 
the  student  of  P^nglish  should  discriminate. 

Acceptance,  acceptation. — Acceptance  is  "  the  act  of 
accepting,"  or  "  favorable  reception,"  as  the  acceptance 
of  an  ofHce.  AccejjlcUion  is  the  sense  in  which  a  term  is 
used;  as,  "  In  the  present  acceptation  of  the  word." 

Ability,  capacity. — Ability  is  one's  power  of  doing. 
Capacity  is  the  power  of  understanding,  of  acquiring,  of 
containing.  "  The  teacher  has  great  ability  as  a  mathe- 
matician."    "The  child's  capacity  is  limited." 

Act,  action. — An  act  is  a  deed  or  a  result  viewed  in 
connection  with  the  power  or  will  of  the  doer.  It  is 
never  used  of  things  mechanical.  It  is  the  simple  exer- 
tion of  power  preceded  by  volition.  Action  is  the  pro- 
cess of  doing.  Smith,  in  "Synon3'ms  Discriminated," 
says,  "The  act  denotes  power;  the  action  involves  the 
mode  in  wliich  the  power  is  exercised.  To  speak  gen- 
erally, acts  are  j)rimarily  physical,  and  secondarily 
moral;  actions  are  primarily  njoral,  and  secondarily 
physical."  An  act  is  single ;  actions  are  continuous. 
"  His  saving  of  the  boy's  life  was  a  noble  act."  "  Our 
character  is  judged  by  our  actions." 

Adherence,  adhesion. — Adherence  expresses  the  moral 

200 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  201 

idea  of  attachment,  while  adhesion  has  reference  to  pliys- 
ical  attachment.  We  speak  of  a  man's  adherence  to  the 
principles  of  his  party  or  the  doctrines  of  his  church, 
and  of  the  adhesion  of  an  ohject  fastened  to  another,  as 
the  bark  to  the  body  of  a  tree. 

Admittance,  admission. — Advvittance  has  reference  to 
the  mere  act  of  allowing  to  enter.  Admission  has  refer- 
ence in  a  moral  sense  to  the  reception  Avith  some  sort 
of  sanction.  Admittance  is  local,  as  the  admittance  into 
a  public  building.  Admission  has  rather  the  meaning  of 
a  right  to  admittance.  "  It  is  the  right  of  admission  that 
secures  admittance,"  says  Smith.  "  No  admittance  here  " 
is  correct,  as  is  also  "  We  gained  admission  to  the  build- 
ing." There  is  admittance  when  the  way  is  open,  and 
admission  when  persons  are  willing  to  admit. 

Advantage,  benefit,  profit.  —  An  advantage  is  that 
which  puts  one  forward,  or  places  him  in  a  better  con- 
dition as  regards  society  or  his  work  ;  thus,  "Tlie  advan- 
tages of  education,  culture,  and  wealth."  Benefit  is  any- 
thing which  makes  the  person  who  receives  it  happier 
or  more  prosperous.  We  may  reap  benefits  ourselves  or 
they  may  be  conferred  upon  us.  We  exercise  for  the 
benefit  of  our  health  ;  we  give  to  charity  for  the  benefit 
of  the  poor.  Profit  is  gain  from  something  expended ; 
it  is  always  the  product  of  our  own  doing,  whether  in 
action  or  in  money,  while  "  advantage  may  come  to  us 
adventitiously,  and  benefits  may  be  conferred  upon  us." 

Affliction,  distress. — Afflkiion  is  a  malady  of  mind  or 
body,  and  is  permanent.  Di-^fress  is  more  mental  than 
physical.  It  may  be  entirely  independent  of  physical 
pain,  and  may  be  but  temporary. 

Aggressor,  assailant. — An  aggressor  is  one  who  begins 
a  quarrel;  an  assailant  is  one  who  commits  the  first  act 
of  violence,  as  in  striking  the  first  blow. 


202  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Agreement,  contract. — An  agreement  is  the  consent 
of  individuals  or  parties  with  reference  to  certain  things 
or  on  certain  terms.  A  contract  is  a  binding  agreement 
between  individuals,  formally  written  and  executed. 

Amateiir,  novice. — An  amateur  is  one  who  is  attached 
to  any  art  or  science  or  who  cultivates  it.  A  novice  is  a 
beginner. 

Answer,  reply. — An  answer  is  a  word  or  words  given 
in  return  to  a  question.  A  reply  is  a  formal  answer  to 
an  argument,  which  may  be  more  than  a  mere  question, 
as  in  debate  the  reply  meets  or  answers  certain  points  or 
arguments.  Reply  is  a  broader  term  than  answer.  We 
answer  a  question  and  reply  to  an  argument. 

Approbation,  approval. — Approbation  is  a  sentiment; 
apjjroval  is  the  expression  of  that  sentiment.  We  enter- 
tain the  appro])ation  and  express  our  approval. 

Amount,  quantity,  number. — Amount  is  the  total  in 
number  or  quantity.  Quantity  is  used  in  connection 
with  anything  that  may  be  measured.  Number  is  used 
in  connection  with  things  that  may  be  counted. 

Avocation,  vocation. — An  avocation  is  that  in  which 
one  may  be  occupied  or  employed  temporarily.  One's 
vocation  is  his  regular  calling  or  profession.  Thus,  "  INIy 
vocation  is  teaching;  my  avocation  then  was  reading." 

Balance,  rest,  remainder. — Balance  means  the  differ- 
ence between  two  sides  of  an  account.  Rest  denotes  that 
which  is  left  after  the  separation  of  a  j)art  or  parts,  and 
is  used  in  speaking  of  persons  or  things.  Remainder  is 
the  rest  under  certain  conditions.  It  is  usually  the 
smaller  part  which  remains  after  the  greater  has  been 
taken  away ;  it  is  used  only  in  speaking  of  things. 

Body,  corpse,  carcass. — Body  and  corpse,  as  a  dead 
body,  are  applied  to  human  beings;  carcass,  only  to  the 
lower  animals.     Body,  as  far  as  the  organization  is  con- 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  203 

cerned,  applies  to  liiimnn  beings  and  brutes;  corpse^  to 
the  bodies  of  human  beings  only. 

Boug-h,  branch. —  A  branch  is  the  limb  of  a  tree  con- 
sidered sinijily  with  regard  to  its  ramifications.  A  hough 
is  the  branch  invested  with  leaves,  blossoms,  or  fruit. 
"The  fruitful  bough,  rich  with  the  foliage  of  summer 
and  the  fruit  of  autumn,  becomes  in  winter  the  leafless 
branch." — Smith. 

Brace,  pair,  couple. — A  pnir,  meaning  two,  must  have 
some  likeness ;  a  cowplc  means  two  of  the  same  kind 
united.  In  a  pair  one  is  often  the  complement  of  the 
other,  as  a  pair  of  gloves,  a  pair  of  shoes.  Brace  is  a 
technical  term  used  by  sportsmen;  as,  "A  brace  of 
quail." 

Burial,  interment. — Burial  is  sim]>ly  the  covering  of 
anything  to  hide  it,  as  one  may  bury  his  face  in  his 
hands.  Interment  is  a  word  more  restricted  in  meaning 
than  burial;  it  involves  the  idea  of  earth  or  soil. 

Calamity,  disaster. — The  word  calamity  is  usually  ap- 
plied to  such  events  as  produce  extensive  evils ;  such  as 
failure  of  crops,  destructive  floods,  or  civil  war.  Disas- 
ter is  applied  to  such  an  occurrence  as  mars  or  ruins 
particular  plans  or  conditions,  such  as  losses  in  trade  or 
railway  accidents. 

Character,  reputation. — Character  is  what  a  person 
morally  is.  Reputation  is  the  prevailing  opinion  with 
regard  to  a  person.  ( 

Center,  middle. — The  center  is  a  point  or  a  definite 
place,  as  "  The  center  of  a  city."  The  word  m,id(lle  is  a 
less  definite  term  than  center ;  it  may  refer  to  space  or 
time;  as,  "The  middle  of  the  road;"  "The  middle  of  a 
line  ;"  "  The  middle  of  winter." 

Choice,  preference. — -Choice  denotes  the  act  and  the 
power  of  choosing.     Preference  is  the  exercise  of  choice 


204  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

in  reference  to  one  or  more  ol)jects.  To  say  that  one  has 
no  choice  in  a  matter  means  that  he  has  no  power  to 
choose.  To  say  that  one  has  no  preference  in  a  matter 
means  that  he  has  no  prevailing  inclination  or  choice. 

Companion,  associate,  comrade.  —  A  companion  is 
one  who  goes  in  company  with  another  temporarih'. 
There  need  be  no  equality;  thus,  a  man's  companion 
may  be  his  clog.  An  associate  is  one  who  is  a  habitual 
and  voluntary  companion  on  the  ground  of  personal 
liking  or  community  of  feeling.  A  comrade  is  a  com- 
panion who  is  made  so  by  circumstances  and  not  by 
personal  choice.  Thus,  the  students  in  a  school  or  the 
soldiers  of  an  army  are  comrades. 

Compensation,  remuneration.  —  Compensation  is  an 
equivalent  furnished  for  anything  parted  with  or  lost 
by  another.  Remuneration  is  compensation  for  jiersonal 
services  done  to  the  reraunerator.  One's  salary  or  wages 
is  therefore  remuneration. 

Composition,  mixture. — A  mixture  is  any  interfusion 
of  particles  of  a  different  nature  into  one  mass,  liquid 
or  solid,  and  it  may  be  the  result  of  either  chance  or 
design.  A  composition  is  the  union  or  mixture  of  parts, 
elements,  or  ingredients  designedl\%  and  according  to 
certain  proportions. 

Convert,  proselyte. — A  convert  is  one  who  turns  from 
one  set  of  opinions  to  another.  A  proselyte  is  one  who 
has  been  brought  over  from  one  religion  to  another. 
The  convert  has  changed  Ins  views,  religious  or  other- 
wise ;  the  proselyte  is  one  whose  views  on  religion  have 
been  changed  by  the  persuasion  of  others. 

Corner,  angle. — Corner  is  applied  to  the  meeting  of 
two  st)lid  bodies,  angle  to  the  meeting  of  mathematical 
lines.  Corner  refers  to  the  point  of  meeting;  angle,  to 
the  si)acc  included  Ijctwecn  the  lines. 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  205 

Crime,  sin,  misdemeanor. — A  crime  is  a  deed  violat- 
ing a  law,  human  or  divine.  The  word  is  now  usually 
restricted  to  mean  the  violating  of  a  civil  law.  A  sin  is 
a  violation  of  divine  law,  or  any  law  of  a  sacred  charac- 
ter.    A  misdemeanor  is  a  minor  crime. 

Custom,  habit. —  Custom  is  a  frequent  or  habitual  rep- 
etition, whether  b}^  individuals  or  communities.  Habit 
applies  to  individuals  onl}',  and  is  the  resulting  effect  of 
custom.  Custom  is  voluntary;  habit  is  involuntar}',  and 
sometimes  unconscious. 

Deception,  deceit. — Deception  is  the  act  of  deceiving. 
It  applies  to  individual  instances  or  acts  of  one  who 
deceives.  Deceit  applies  to  the  habit  or  quality  of  mind, 
or  the  trait  of  character;  thus,  we  speak  of  "  a  course  of 
deceit." 

Delivery,  deliverance. — Delivery  means  a  delivering 
to;  deliverance,  a  delivering  from. 

DiflBculty,  obstacle. — The  w^ord  difficulty  is  usually 
applied  to  such  impediments  as  are  complicated,  and 
require  patience  to  overcome.  Obstacle  is  applied  to 
such  as  are  simple. 

Disability,  inability. — Disability  expresses  the  absence 
of  power  from  a  subject  capable  of  it;  disability  ma}''  be 
only  temporary.  Inability  is  the  absence  of  power  from 
a  subject  incapable  of  it.  Disability  may  be  removed ; 
inability  is  irremediable. 

End,  aim. — Aim  has  reference  to  the  immediate  object, 
end  to  the  ultimate  object. 

Extent,  limit. — Extent  denotes  a  su.perficial  spreading 
in  one  or  more  directions.  Limit  is  the  boundary  or 
restraint  of  such  extent. 

House,  home. — A  house  is  a  building  in  which  to  live. 
Home  is  the  place  where  one  halntually  lives. 

Idea,  thought. — An  idea  is  a  mental  impression  or 


206  GOOD  EXGLISII. 

picture;  thus,  we  have  an  idea  of  a  rose;  we  also  have 
an  idea  of  red  or  redness.  We  combine  these  ideas  and 
we  have  a  thougJd ;  as,  "  The  rose  is  red." 

Impertinence,  impudence,  insolence.  —  Impertinence 
has  reference  to  the  meddling  with  matters  in  whicli  the 
meddler  has  no  concern.  Impudence  is  an  unblushing 
assurance  accompanied  with  a  disregard  of  the  presence 
or  rights  of  others.  Indolence  is  applied  to  the  unbridled 
exhibition  of  impudence  or  pride,  to  the  disregard  of  the 
feelings  of  others.  "  Impertinence  is  no  respecter  of  pro- 
priety ;  ini])udence,  no  respecter  of  delicacy;  insolence, 
no  respecter  of  persons." 

Intellect,  mind. — Intellect  is  used  to  denote  the  think- 
ing power  of  the  mind,  including  perception,  memor}^, 
imagination,  understanding,  and  intuition.  Mind  in- 
cludes not  only  the  intellect,  but  also  the  sensibilities 
and  the  will. 

Intention,  purpose. — Intention  is  a  general  setting  of 
the  mind  on  doing  a  thing.  Purpose  is  stronger  than 
intention,  indicating  a  resolution  to  be  carried  out.  In- 
tention is  incipient  volition,  purpose  is  decisive. 

Invention,  discovery. — Invention  is  the  making  of  a 
combination  of  ideas  a  reality  for  the  first  time.  A  dis- 
covery is  the  finding  out  of  something  heretofore  exist- 
ing but  unknown.  Thus,  we  invent  machines  and  ])ro- 
cesses  ;  we  discover  elements,  causes,  and  truths. 

Judgment,  discernment. — Judcpnent  is  the  power  or 
faculty  which  decides  accurateh'  in  practical  matters. 
Discernment  is  combined  keenness  and  accurac}'  of  men- 
tal vision.  Discernment  regards  difl'eronces  rather  than 
things,  but  judgment  is  concerned  with  the  things  them- 
selves. 

Limb,  member. — In  human  anatom)-  limb  is  tiie  term 
aj)i>li(Ml  to  the  arms  and  the  legs,  member  is  tlie  term  ap- 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  207 

plied  to  any  organ  or  part  of  the  body  which  performs 
a  distinct  ofiice,  as  the  tongue,  the  eye. 

Majority,  plurality. — A  mnjority  is  more  tlian  half  of 
the  whole  number.  A  plurality  is  the  excess  of  votes 
given  to  any  candidate  over  the  next  highest.  It  is  a 
majority  when  there  are  but  two  candidates,  but  not 
necessarily  so  when  there  are  more  than  two.  Thus,  in 
a  hundred  votes  cast,  fifty-one  or  upward  is  a  majority ; 
but  if  three  candidates  receive  respectively  forty,  thirty- 
six,  and  twenty-four  votes,  the  candidate  receiving  forty 
votes  has  a  plurality.  l)ut  not  a  majority. 

Melody,  harmony. — Melody  is  a  rh  vthmical  succession 
of  single  sounds  so  as  to  form  a  musical  thought.  Pop- 
ularly it  is  known  as  the  tune.  Harmony  is  a  concord 
of  two  or  more  musical  strains.  In  hymns  and  other 
musical  selections,  the  melody  usually  is  one  of  the 
strains. 

Memory,  remembrance,  recollection.  —  Memory  is 
that  mental  faculty  by  which  we  retain  and  reproduce 
a  knowledge  of  past  thoughts  or  events.  It  includes 
remembrance,  the  power  of  retaining  knowledge,  and 
recollection,  the  power  of  recalling  knowledge.  Strictly 
speaking,  the  following,  "  Do  you  remember  m}'  name?" 
means  only  "  Do  you  hold  my  name  in  memory  ?"  What 
the  speaker  means  to  imply  is  "  Do  you  recall  my  name?" 
That  is,  "  Do  you  recollect  my  name?"  We  remember  any- 
thing that  may  be  recalled  either  now  or  in  the  future, 
though  we  may  not  be  able  to  recollect  it  when  we  wish. 
The  word  usually  in  demand  is  "recollect ;"  as,  "I  recol- 
lect when  it  was  thought  impossible  to  send  news  by 
telegraph." 

Negligence,  neglect.  —  Negliyence  is  applied  to  the 
habit ;  neglect,  to  an  act  or  a  succession  of  acts. 

Novice,  novitiate.  —  A  novice  is  a  beginner,  or  one 


208  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

who  is  new  in  any  business  or  calling.  Novitiate  denotes 
tlie  state  or  the  time  of  being  a  novice. 

Observance,  observation. —  Observance  is  the  due  or 
proper  rendering  of  a  formal  or  practical  recognition  to 
rule,  law,  custom,  or  occasion;  as,  our  observance  of  the 
Sa])bath,  our  observance  of  law  or  of  the  principles  of 
trutli.  Observation  has  reference  to  an  act  of  close  con- 
templation, with  a  view  of  becoming  acquainted  with 
the  object,  as  the  observation  of  an  eclipse. 

Opinion,  sentiment. — An  opinion  is  purely  intellec- 
tual, and  is  the  result  of  a  judgment  on  the  subjects  of 
science,  argument,  facts,  principles,  or  occurrences.  Sen- 
timent has  to  do  only  with  matters  of  feeling. 

Part,  portion. — Part  is  the  general  term,  meaning  that 
which  is  less  than  the  whole.  Portion  is  generally  used 
with  some  suggestion  of  allotment.  Thus,  a  portion  of 
land  is  a  quantity  in  which  one  or  more  persons  are 
interested. 

Proceeding-,  procedure. — A  proceeding  is  a  complex 
action  whose  steins  or  stages  may  be  distinguished  sepa- 
rately. Procedure  is  the  act  or  manner  of  proceeding. 
Thus,  we  may  say,  "The  proceedings  were  interesting." 
"  His  method  of  procedure  was  approved." 

Proposal,  proposition. — A  proposal  is  somctliing  put 
forth  or  laid  down  for  acce]itance  or  rejection  by  another. 
A  proposition  is  simjjly  a  statement,  an  aflirmation,  or  a 
denial.  Smith,  in  >Sipiinu/ms  IHscrinwiated,  suggests  a 
further  difference  as  follows:  ^'^  Proposition  being  used 
for  something  to  be  deliberated  upon ;  proposal,  some- 
thing to  be  done."  In  general,  it  is  better  to  say  "I 
liave  a  proposal  to  make,"  rather  than  "  a  proposition 
to  make." 

Reason,  cause. — A  reason  is  that  which  accounts  for 
a  conclusion.     It  is  the  why  we  believe  as  we  do.     Cause 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  209 

is  that  which  produces  an  effect.  The  cause  gives 
the  physical  account;  the  reason,  the  logical  or  meta- 
physical. 

Receipt,  reception. — The  word  receipt  is  used  when 
money  or  other  objects  are  taken  into  possession.  Re- 
ception applies  to  persons  and  to  such  objects  as  are  con- 
nected with  sentiment  on  the  part  of  the  giver.  The 
following  are  correct  forms  :  "  A  receipt  for  the  goods 
was  given ;"  "  The  reception  of  the  favor  won  our  grat- 
itude;" ''The  speaker  met  with  a  warm  reception." 

Relative,  relation. — A  relative  is  one  who  is  connected 
with  another  by  bluod  or  marriage.  The  word  relation 
was  so  used  formerly,  but  it  is  now  confined  mostly  to 
its  abstract  sense ;  as,  "  What  are  his  relations  to  the 
congregation?"     "  What  relation  is  Mr.  Strong  to  you?" 

Requirement,  requisite. — A  requirement  is  something 
required  by  a  person  or  persons.  A  requisite  is  some- 
thing needed  by  the  nature  of  the  case  to  give  complete- 
ness. Thus,  "  The  requirements  of  candidates  for  the 
position  are  of  a  high  order ;"  "  One  of  the  requisites  to 
success  is  a  good  character." 

Sewage,  sewerage. — Sewage  is  the  contents  of  sewers. 
Sewerage  has  reference  to  the  system  employed  in  carrj-- 
ing  sewage. 

Adjective  Synonyms. 

Acid,  sour. — Acid  and  sour  express  different  degrees 
of  the  same  quality.  Acid  is  a  concentrated  corrosive 
sourness;  sour  refers  to  a  milder  form  of  acidity.  Lemon 
juice  is  acid,  buttermilk  is  sour. 

Active,  busy. — Active  expresses  a  tendency  to  employ- 
ment. Busy  means  simpl}^  closely  or  diligently  employ- 
ed. To  be  active  im^^lies  energy ;  to  be  busy  implies  at- 
tention to  one's  work. 

14 


210  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Adjacent,  adjoimng,  contiguous.  —  Adjacent  means 
lying  near,  without  touching.  Adjoining  means  touch- 
ing at  a  single  point.  Contiguous  means  touching  at  one 
or  more  sides. 

Abundant,  copious,  plentiful.  —  Abundant  is  used 
witl)out  reference  to  the  source,  but  witli  reference  to 
the  quantity  of  the  supply ;  as,  "  An  abundance  of 
money."  Copious  means  an  abundant  giving  forth ;  as, 
"  A  copious  stream."  PlentiJ'ul  is  similar  in  meaning  to 
abundant,  but  it  is  limited  more  strictly  to  physical 
things.  We  may  speak  of  a  plentiful  or  an  abundant 
harvest,  but  not  of  a  plentiful  cause  for  gratitude. 

Artful,  deceitful,  designing. — The  original  meaning 
of  artful  was  simply  "  full  of  art,"  in  the  sense  of  con- 
trivance. But  the  word  now  has  reference  to  the  use  of 
such  means  for  one's  own  purpose  as  are  hidden  from 
the  observation  of  others.  Deceitful  has  reference  to  a 
more  deliberate  purpose  of  leading  others  astray.  One 
may  be  artful  and  yet  not  deceitful.  The  man  who  stands 
and  looks  intently  at  the  top  of  a  tree  along  the  street, 
and  thereby  draws  a  curious  crowd,  may  be  called  artful, 
but  he  is  not  necessarily  deceitful.  The  deceitful  man 
is  ready,  if  necessar}^,  to  resort  to  falseliood  to  gain  his 
end.  Designing  denotes  the  exercise  of  artful  conduct 
with  the  specific  pur[)ose  of  securing  certain  results. 
The  designing  man  is  always  laying  plans  for  the  pur- 
pose of  accomplishing  some  end  in  the  future. 

Authentic,  genuine. — Authentic  means  having  autho- 
rity, dcnuine  means  real  or  true  as  o])posed  to  what  is 
sj)urious.  A  document  is  authentic  when  it  relates  facts 
and  may  be  relied  upon  as  being  true  and  authoritative. 
It  is  genuine  when  it  is  the  production  of  a  person  whose 
name  it  bears  as  author. 

Beautiful,  handsome. — The  word  handsome  is  applied 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  211 

to  persons,  to  certain  objects,  and  to  moral  acts.  Beau- 
tiful is  applied  to  persons  and  other  objects  of  eitlier 
sight  or  sound.  Thus,  we  speak  of  "  a  handsome  man," 
"handsome  conduct,"  "  a  handsome  horse."  We  speak 
also  of  "a  beautiful  woman,"  "a  beautiful  melody,"  "a 
beautiful  landscape."  Handsome  may  be  applied  to  men 
or  women  ;  horses,  dogs,  or  other  animals ;  trees,  houses, 
and  parks;  but  not  to  landscapes,  views,  or  prospects. 
Handsome  is  rarely  applied  to  pliysical  objects  of  small 
size;  tliese  are  pretty  or  heautiful. 

Beneficent,  generous,  benevolent,  liberal.  —  Benefi- 
cent denotes  largeness  of  bount}',  as  the  outflow  of  great 
kindness  combined  with  great  power.  The  word  is  now 
restricted  almost  wholly  to  Divine  giving.  Generous  de- 
notes a  mental  disposition  to  give  whether  one  has  the 
means  or  not.  It  applies  to  forgiving  as  well  as  to  giv- 
ing. Liberal  denotes  a  character  which  gives  largely 
when  it  gives.  It  makes  no  definite  estimates  as  to 
what  is  needed,  but  aims  to  give  enough.  In  conduct 
it  considers  favorable  as  well  as  unfavorable  construc- 
tions, and  rather  gives  them  the  preference.  Benevolent 
has  reference  to  the  person  rather  than  to  the  act.  A  be- 
nevolent man  will  give  when  he  can.  In  character  he 
will  avoid  doing  injury,  and  aim  to  benefit  where  he 
finds  it  possible. 

Brave,  bold. — Brave  applies  to  the  readiness  to  meet 
such  dangers  as  come  from  living  or  active  opponents 
whose  power  is  to  be  dreaded.  The  stopping  of  a  run- 
away horse  is  a  brave  act,  so  also  is  the  saving  of  a  per- 
son from  drowning  or  from  being  burned  to  death.  Bold. 
refers  to  a  readiness  or  pretended  readiness  to  meet  dan- 
ger, rather  than  to  the  conduct  when  the  danger  comes. 
A  man  may  be  bold  in  his  threats  against  an  enemy,  but 
when  he  runs  away  he  is  not  brave. 


212  GOOD  EyGLISH. 

Bright,  brilliant. — Brilliant  is  a  stronger  term  than 
bright.  Briijht  is  used  in  a  variety  of  meanings, — shed- 
ding light,  reflecting  light,  etc.  Brilliant  is  shining  witli 
intense  or  sparkling  brightness  which  shines  with  a 
changeful  play. 

Ceremonial,  ceremonious.— Ccrc?no7im^  is  applied  to 
external  rites,  or  public  ceremony.  Ceremonious  is  applied 
in  its  present  sense  to  dealing  overmuch  in  conventional 
forms  ]jetween  individuals. 

Clean,  cleanly. —  Clean  means  free  from  filth  or  that 
which  is  foul.  In  a  moral  sense  it  means  that  which  is 
free  from  evil.  Clennbj  denotes  a  disposition  to  be  ijhys- 
ically  clean.     It  has  reference  to  the  habit. 

Close,  near. — Close  is  a  more  definite  term  than  near. 
Houses  or  persons  are  close  when  they  almost  touch  ; 
they  may  be  near  and  yet  be  separated  by  a  moderate 
distance. 

Competent,  qualified.  —  One  is  qualified  for  a  task 
when,  either  by  training  or  otherwise,  he  has  a  special 
aptitude  for  the  work.  He  is  competent  when  lie  lias 
simply  the  natural  powers,  to  which  such  subsequent 
training  may  be  given  as  will  make  him  qualified. 

Complete,  entire,  whole.  —  Entire  and  whole  are  in 
nian}'  cases  interchangea])le.  An  entire  set  of  furni- 
ture and  a  whole  set  of  furniture  mean  the  same  thing. 
Whole,  however,  applies  to  what  is  made  up  of  parts. 
Therefore,  where  the  idea  is  such  that  the  thing  Avhich 
it  represents  cannot  be  divided  into  parts,  the  proper 
word  is  entire,  as  in  "entire  confidence,"  "entire  care." 
Complete  denotes  the  presence  or  possession  of  all  that  is 
needful  to  constitute  a  thing.  An  object  is  entire  when 
not  broken  or  mutilated ;  it  is  complete  Avhcn  it  lacks 
nothing. 

Corporal,  corporeal. — Corporal  relates  to  the  substance 


CHOICE  OF   WORDS.  213 

of  the  body ;  corporeal.,  to  the  nature  of  the  body.  We 
speak  of  "  corporal  punishment  "  and  of  our  "  corporeal 
existence." 

Diffident,  bashful,  modest,  reserved. — Diffidence  is  the 
positive  distrust  of  one's  self.  Modesty  is  the  absence  of 
any  tendency  to  over-estimate  one's  self.  Bashfulness  is 
excessive  or  extreme  modesty.  Reserve  is  a  keeping  to 
one's  self.  Sometimes  it  becomes  faulty  when  it  ap- 
proaches too  nearly  to  pride. 

Docile,  tractable. — Docile  denotes  the  actual  quality 
of  meekness.  Tractable  denotes  the  absence  of  refrac- 
toriness. A  docile  child  is  easily  taught  and  managed ; 
a  tractable  child  may  be  taught  and  governed  by  proper 
attention. 

Doubtful,  uncertain. — Doubtful  is  used  in  the  sense 
of  entertaining  a  doubt  or  admitting  a  doubt.  Uncertain 
simply  expresses  a  lack  of  sufficient  knowledge  to  de- 
cide. "  It  is  doubtful  whether  we  shall  win,  for  it  is 
uncertain  liow  many  votes  will  be  cast." 

Eager,  earnest, — Eager  denotes  an  excited  desire  and 
intentness  in  the  pursuit  of  some  object;  as,  "Children 
eager  to  see  ;"  "  Hounds  eager  in  the  chase."  Earnest  is 
always  used  in  a  good  sense,  and  refers  to  the  steadiness 
and  energy  of  an  occupation  or  a  habit. 

Eligible,  desirable. — Eligible  means  worthy  of  being 
chosen,  or  qualified  to  be  chosen.  Desirable  is  broader 
in  its  application.  It  relates  to  any  kind  of  choice,  as 
of  possession,  conduct,  or  anything  that  is  to  be  wished 
for ;  as,  "  a  desirable  residence,"  "  desirable  associates," 
"  desirable  absence  of  noise." 

Endemic,  epidemic— An  epidemic  disease  is  one  in 
whicli  the  cause  acts  on  a  large  number  of  people  at  the 
same  time.  An  endemic  disease  is  one  that  is  peculiar  to 
the  peo])le  of  a  particular  nation  or  community,  its  ori- 


214  GOOD  EyOLISH. 

gin  being  connected  with  tlie  local  conditions  or  the 
personal  habits  of  tliose  among  whom  it  occurs. 

Enormous,  huge,  vast. — Huge  denotes  great  size,  with 
massiveness  predominating  over  proportion.  Enormous 
is  huge  of  its  j)articular  kind  ;  thus,  an  api)le  five  inches 
in  diameter  would  not  be  huge,  but  it  would  be  an  enor- 
mous apple.  Vast  has  reference  to  the  quality  of  great 
superficial  area,  as  vast  prairies  and  huge  mountains. 

Envious,  jealous. — Envious  denotes  a  feeling  of  un- 
happiness  caused  by  the  contemplation  of  any  good 
enjoyed  b}^  another.  Jealous  indicates  envy  mixed  with 
rivalry.  One  is  jealous  of  another  when  the  latter  stands 
in  some  relation  to  a  third  which  the  former  desires  to 
occupy.     Nations  as  well  as  individuals  may  be  jealous. 

Equal,  equable. — Equal  is  applicable  to  number,  de- 
gree, or  measurement  of  things  fixed.  Equable  denotes 
the  quality  of  continuous  proportion,  and  is  applied  to 
action  or  movement.  Thus,  we  say  a  vessel  sails  an 
equable,  not  an  equal,  rate  when  it  sails  as  great  a  dis- 
tance in  any  hour  as  in  tlie  ])receding. 

Equal,  equivalent. — Equal  denotes  that  two  things 
agree  in  anything  that  is  ca])able  of  degree,  as  number, 
value,  quality.  Equivalent  means  equal  in  such  propor- 
tions as  affect  ourselves,  or  the  use  we  make  of  things, 
as  value,  force,  effect. 

Extraordinary,  remarkable.  —  Extraordinary  denotes 
that  whicli  is  out  of  or  beyond  the  ordinary.  It  is 
sometimes  equivalent  to  the  word  remarkable,  or  that 
which  causes  remark,  but  it  cannot  be  used  as  equivalent 
to  remarkable  except  when  the  subject  contem})lated 
excites  remark. 

Extravagant,  prodigal. — Extravagant  denotes  a  wan- 
dering Ijcyond.  One  may  be  extravagant  in  the  expen- 
diture of  money,  in  speech,  in  compliments.     Prodigal 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  215 

indicates  a  love  of  large  and  excessiv^e  expenditures.  A 
poor  man  may  be  extravagant,  but  he  is  prevented  by 
his  poverty  from  being  prodigal. 

Female,  feminine,  effeminate. — Female  is  applied  to 
sex  as  opposed  to  male.  Feminine  indicates  tliat  which 
is  characteristic  of  females,  as  opposed  to  masculine. 
Effeminate  applies  to  those  actions  or  characteristics  of 
men  which  would  be  more  appropriate  to  women.  We 
speak  of  "  female  dress,"  "  feminine  accomplishments," 
"  effeminate  actions." 

Garrulous,  loquacious,  talkative. — Garrulous  denotes 
being  unduly  talkative,  especially  about  others'  affairs 
rather  than  our  own.  Talkative  implies  a  desire  to 
engage  in  talk  witli  others  as  well  as  to  others.  Lo- 
quacious denotes  the  habit  of  talking  continuously. 

Gentle,  mild,  meek. — Gentle  originally  denoted  well- 
born. It  indicates  refinement  and  quietness  of  nature. 
It  is  applicable  to  animals,  and,  by  analog}^  to  external 
forces  and  influences.  We  may  speak  not  only  of  a 
gentleman,  but  also  of  gentle  lambs,  gentle  breezes,  and 
the  like.  Mild  implies  subdued  but  not  deteriorated 
energy,  as  "mild  air,"  which  might  be  harsh;  "mild 
expression,"  "mild  disposition."  Meek  differs  from  mild 
and  gentle  in  never  being  applied  to  conduct,  but  only 
to  the  temper  or  character.  A  meek  person  is  one  who 
subm.its  to  wrong  rather  than  combat  it. 

Gratuitous,  voluntary. — Gratuitous  means  given  with- 
out recompense,  or  without  proof  A  gratuitous  assertion 
is  one  without  proof;  a  gratuitous  affront,  one  that  is 
unmerited  or  uncalled-for.  Voluntary  means  by  the  con- 
sent of  one's  will;  that  is,  not  done  under  compulsion. 
Many  acts  are  done  voluntarily  that  are  not  done  wil- 
lingly. 

Great,  big,  large. — Big  gives  the  imiDression  of  relative 


216  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

bulk;  as,  a  big  fisb,  a  big  mountain.  Large  applies 
chiefly  to  relative  Avidth  or  capacity ;  as,  a  large  build- 
ing, one  that  is  capacious.  Great  may  be  used  not  only 
with  regard  to  size  or  number,  but  with  regard  to  any- 
thing that  may  exist  in  degree ;  as,  "  a  great  noise,"  "  a 
great  address,"  ''a  great  battle."  A  great  soldier  may 
not  be  a  large  soldier,  nor  a  large  soldier  a  great  one. 
Number,  quantity,  and  extent  are  represented  as  large. 
Power,  knowledge,  strength,  wisdom,  and  such  abstract 
qualities  as  ignorance,  weakness,  and  folly,  with  tlieir 
opposites,  may  be  represented  as  great. 

Hard,  difQ.cvlt.  —  Hard  expresses  in  a  general  way 
what  difficult  expresses  in  a  more  refined  and  particular 
way.  Any  work  of  the  body  or  the  mind  which  seems 
to  resist  our  efforts  may  be  said  to  be  hard.  That  which 
is  difficult  presents  a  kind  of  liardness  which  requires 
some  mental  aptitude,  as  well  as  work  and  persever- 
ance, to  overcome.  Many  occupations  are  not  difficult, 
but  they  require  hard  work.  The  process  of  solving  a 
problem  may  not  be  hard  work,  but  it  is  often  difficult. 
We  therefore  speak  correctly  of  difficult  questions  and 
difficult  problems  instead  of  hard  problems  and  hard 
questions. 

Hideous,  shocking-.— if /Vi^'ows  primarily  denoted  that 
which  is  frightful  to  behold,  Init  is  now  extended  also  to 
noises.  That  which  is  shocking  acts  with  a  sudden  effect. 
The  hideous  contradicts  beauty  and  is  lasting;  the  shock- 
ing contradicts  morality  and  is  teinjiorary. 

Lawful,  legal. — Latcjid  denotes  "in  accordance  with 
law,  whether  civil  or  moral."  Lcgid  denotes  conformity 
to  civil  law,  the  law  of  the  land. 

Little,  small. — Little  is  a  general  term,  and  applies  to 
quantity  as  well  as  size;  as,  "  little  attention ;"  "a.little 
boy."     iSmall  applies  to  size  only.     LitUe  is  opposed  to 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  217 

hig ;  small,  to  large.  The  terms  are  relative,  little  being 
exceptionally  small. 

Luxuriant,  luxurious. — Luxuriant  means  superabun- 
dant; liuurious,  contributing  to  luxury;  thus,  "luxuriant 
vegetation  ;"  "  luxurious  ease." 

Noted,  notorious.  —  Abated  refers  to  that  which  is 
Avell-known  favorably  or  eminentl}^  as  "  a  noted  ora- 
tor." Notorious  is  employed  to  express  what  is  widely 
and  publicly  known,  and  usually,  though  not  always, 
unfavorably;   as,  "A  notorious  thief." 

Obstinate,  stubborn. — An  obstinate  person  is  one  that 
will  do  what  he  has  determined  upon.  A  stubborn  person 
will  not  do  what  others  wish  him  to  do.  One  term  is 
positive;  the  other,  negative. 

Only,  alone. —  Only  indicates  that  there  is  no  other  of 
the  same  kind  ;  alone,  denotes  being  accompanied  by  no 
other.  "  An  only  child  "  is  one  that  has  no  brothers  or 
sisters;  "a  child  alone  "  is  one  that  is  not  accompanied 
by  any  one.  The  following  are  correct:  "Only  members 
are  admitted ;"  "  The  request  alone  was  sufficient  to 
secure  the  favor." 

Opinionated,  conceited. —  Opinionated  denotes  self-con- 
ceit on  particular  points  in  one's  judgment,  accompanied 
with  an  obstinate  determination  to  hold  to  one's  opin- 
ion. Conceited  refers  to  the  over-estimation  of  one's  own 
ability. 

Penurious,  saving. — Saving  denotes  the  avoiding  of 
unnecessary  expense,  whether  as  a  habit  or  for  a  pur- 
pose. Penurious  refers  to  the  suffering  of  want  in  the 
extremity  of  saving. 

Pliant,  pliable. — ^That  which  is  capable  of  bending  is 
pliant.  That  which  may  be  readily  bent  is  pliable.  A 
whipstock  is  pliant,  but  a  whiplash  is  pliable. 

Rational,  reasonable. — Rational  denotes  that  which 


218  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

pertains  to  the  reasoning  powers  as  a  faculty.  It  is  that 
wliich  distinguishes  tlie  man  from  the  brute.  Reasonable 
has  reference  more  to  that  which  is  in  accord  with  our 
sense  of  right  or  fitness,  as  "  a  reasonable  excuse." 

Ravenous,  voracious.  —  Both  these  words  apply  to 
the  matter  of  appetite.  A  voracious  animal  is  one  that 
eats  large  quantities  of  food ;  a  ravenous  animal  is  one 
that  eats  with  great  haste,  usually  because  hunger  has 
been  increased  by  ])rivati()n. 

Refractory,  ungovernable.  —  liejractory  denotes  per- 
verseness  in  breaking  rules  or  in  disobeying  commands. 
Ungovernable  denotes  that  which  sets  at  defiance  all  at- 
teni}jts  to  govern  or  control. 

Regal,  royal.  —  Regal  means  belonging  to  the  attri- 
butes of  a  king;  as,  "regal  splendor."  Royal  denotes 
belonging  to  the  person  of  the  king;  as,  "royal  robes;" 
"royal  crown." 

Ridiculous,  ludicrous. — Ludicrous  denotes  that  which 
is  likely  to  ]>rovnke  laughter,  but  without  any  necessary 
admixture  of  contempt.  Ridiculous  conveys  "  the  idea 
of  the  contemptible  in  things  and  the  humiliating  in 
persons." 

Righteous,  godly. — A  righteous  man  is  one  who  in  a 
practical  way  believes  in  revealed  religion,  and  docs 
what  he  believes  is  in  conformity  with  the  Divine  will. 
A  godly  man  is  one  who  communes  with  God,  in  prayer, 
meditation,  and  the  study  of  God's  word. 

Scarce,  rare. — Things  are  rare  when  oidy  a  few  of  the 
kind  exist;  they  are  scarce  when  they  can  be  had  only  in 
less  ([uantity  than  usual. 

Sensible,  sensitive.  —  Sensible  expresses  a  habit  or 
state  of  mind  relating  to  a  j)articular  subject.  Thus, 
one  may  be  sensil)l(;  of  cold,  heat,  or  kindness.  Sensi- 
tive expresses  a  condition  in  which  the  sense  or  feeling 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  219 

is  quickly  acted  upon,  as  one  is  sensitive  to  changes  of 
temperature. 

"Womanly,  ■womanish. — Womanly  denotes  belonging 
to  woman.  Womanish  means  effeminate.  Thus,  we  speak 
of  the  womanly  traits  of  girls  and  the  womanish  ways 
of  some  men. 

Verb  Synonyms. 

Abdicate,  resign, — These  words  differ  chiefly  in  their 
application  to  the  importance  of  position.  Abdicate  means 
to  leave  or  reject  a  liigh  power,  dignity,  or  station,  as  a 
king  abdicates  his  throne.  Resign  means  to  quit  or  give 
up  any  situation,  office,  or  employment,  high  or  low,  as 
an  officer  or  an  emploN^ee  may  resign  his  position. 

Allo^w",  permit. — To  allow  is  to  give  some  degree  of 
sanction ;  to  permit  is  sim])ly  not  to  prevent. 

Argue,  debate. — To  argue  is  to  say  all  that  can  be 
said  either  for  or  against  a  proposition ;  to  debate  is  to 
sift  by  argument  for  and  against. 

Assassinate,  kill,  murder. — To  kill  is  the  broadest  of 
these  terms.  It  means  simply  to  deprive  of  life,  includ- 
ing vegetable  as  well  as  animal  life.  To  murder  is  to  kill 
with  malicious  thought  and  intention.  To  assassinate  is 
to  murder  by  secret  or  sudden  attack  upon  a  person. 

Banish,  expel,  transport,  expatriate.^ — To  banish  is  to 
eject  by  ban  or  public  proclamation.  To  expel  is  to  drive 
out.  To  transport  is  to  carry  beyond  the  sea  to  a  penal 
colony.  To  exjmtriate  denotes  the  alienation  from  one's 
native  land.  One  may  expatriate  himself,  but  he  is 
banished,  expelled,  or  transported  by  some  authority  in 
power. 

Begin,  commence. — Begin  usually  refers  to  time  or 
order.  Commence  implies  action.  Thus,  "  A  wicked  life 
begins  with  little  sins."    Formal  and  public  transactions 


220  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

arc  said  to  commence.  Thus,  "  Tlie  work  of  preparing 
the  book  was  commenced  before  the  holidays." 

Collect,  assemble. — To  colled,  used  intransitively,  is 
to  gather  from  difi'erent  places  into  one  bod_y  or  place. 
To  assemble  denotes  the  same  as  to  collect,  but  is  ap])li- 
cable  only  to  persons. 

Comprehend,  apprehend. — Apprehend  is  to  lay  hold 
of  or  grasj)  by  the  mind.  It  is  sim])ly  the  recognition 
of  a  fact.  Comprehend  implies  more  than  apprehend. 
To  comprehend  is  to  embrace  or  understand  a  thought 
in  all  its  extent.  I  comprehend  a  thought  when  I  know 
all  about  it. 

Confess,  acknowledge. — To  acknovdedge  is  to  admit 
that  one  has  knowledge.  To  confess  implies  a  fault.  The 
word  confess  is  frequently  misused  for  acknowledge  or  ad- 
mit, as  in  "  I  confess  I  thought  he  was  the  taller  of  the 
two." 

Confirm,  corroborate. — Tlie  use  of  these  words  is  to 
give  strength  to  assertions.  To  corrohurate  is  used  only 
of  the  subjects  ;  as,  facts,  opinions,  or  statements  are  cor- 
roborated, while  confirm  is  used  with  reference  both  to  the 
minds  of  the  persons  and  to  the  subjects.  Thus,  "His 
statement  was  corroborated ;"  "  I  am  confirmed  in  my 
opinion." 

Confute,  refute.^ — Confute  applies  both  to  an  argument 
and  to  the  ])erson  who  makes  the  argument.  To  r(fute 
means  to  repel  by  the  same  kind  of  argument,  and  ap- 
plies to  anything  that  may  be  alleged  against  one,  as 
calumny  and  the  like. 

Congratulate,  felicitate. — To  felicitate  originally  meant 
to  make  happy,  and  was  the  proper  word  to  use  wlien  it 
was  meant  to  compliment  a  singer  or  a  speaker  on  the 
excellence  of  his  performance.  Tlie  word  congratulate, 
which  implies  a  sharing  in  another's   happiness,  has, 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  221 

however,  of  late  been  made  to  take  the  place  of  the 
word  felicitate  when  we  mean  a  simple  expression  of 
formal  politeness. 

Devise,  bequeath. — Devise  is  properly  used  for  a  gift 
of  real  estate  by  will.  Bequeaih  is  properly  used  wlien 
applied  to  a  gift  of  personal  property  by  will,  but  Law 
Courts  have  in  a  measure  extended  the  application  of 
the  word  "bequeath"  to  include  what  is  properly  ex- 
pressed by  the  word  "devise." 

Descry,  discover. — Discover  is  to  bring  to  light  what 
was  concealed  or  unknown.  Descry  is  to  discover  by 
the  eye  things  difficult  of  discernment  on  account  of 
distance  or  dimness. 

Dispel,  disperse. — Dispel  means  to  separate  or  scatter 
in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  to  vanish.  Disperse  means 
simply  to  scatter  abroad.  We  dispel  illusions.  Sun- 
shine dispels  the  fog.     We  disperse  crowds. 

Distinguish,  discriminate. — So  far  as  these  words  are 
used  as  synonyms,  discriminate  is  used  only  of  moral 
subjects ;  distinguish  is  used  also  in  reference  to  physical 
objects.  We  distinguish  best  by  showing  great  differ- 
ences, we  discriminate  best  by  showing  slight  differences. 

Educate,  instruct.  —  To  instruct  is  to  impart  know- 
ledge ;  to  educate  is  to  train  and  develop. 

Excel,  surpass.  —  To  excel  is  to  go  beyond  in  good 
qualities  or  in  laudable  actions.  Excel  is  employed 
only  in  an  honorable  sense.  To  surpass  denotes  to.  go 
beyond  others,  but  it  is  not  limited  to  what  is  praise- 
worthy. 

Expend,  spend.  —  Spend  is  applied  indefinitely  to 
what  w^e  pay  out.  Expend  refers  to  what  we  pay  out 
from  a  particular  source  on  a  particular  object.  Thus, 
"  He  spends  two  thousand  dollars  a  year,  of  which  he 
expends  five  hundred  dollars  on  travel." 


222  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Foretell,  predict. — To  foretell  is  to  tell  or  declare  be- 
forehand what  is  to  happen.  Prediet  differs  from  fore- 
tell chiefly  in  being  limited  in  its  use  to  persons,  while 
foretell  is  used  also  of  other  indicators,  as  "  Clouds  fore- 
tell rain." 

Grieve,  mourn.  —  To  (jricve  is  to  feel  trouble  or  the 
pain  of  inward  distress.  It  is  purely  mental.  To  mourn 
is  to  give  outward  expression  to  our  grief 

Imbibe,  absorb. — To  imbihc  means  to  take  the  moist- 
ure away  from  one  body  into  another.  To  absorb  means 
simply  to  take  the  moisture  away.  The  rays  of  the 
sun  are  said  to  absorb  moisture  ;  a  sponge  both  absorbs 
and  imbibes. 

Incite,  excite. — To  excite  is  to  call  into  greater  activ- 
ity, or  to  arouse  to  an  active  state  powers  before  dor- 
mant.    To  incite  is  to  excite  to  a  particular  act  or  end. 

Inhibit,  prohibit. — To  prohibit  is  to  forbid  by  the  force 
of  authority ;  to  inhibit  is  to  prohibit  coercively.  Pro- 
hibition lies  in  words  only ;  inhibition  is  supported  by 
power  to  enforce  tlie  restraint. 

Intrude,  encroach,  obtrude. — To  intrude  is  to  thrust 
one's  self  upon  the  presence  or  the  society  of  another. 
To  encroach  is  to  come  gradually  or  imperceptibly  ui)on 
another's  land  or  upon  liis  rights.  To  obtrude  is  to  thrust 
one's  self  in  the  way. 

Move,  remove. — To  move  is  to  change  the  position 
of  an  object,  or  to  cause  an  internal  motion  of  its  parts. 
To  remove  it  is  to  take  it  away  bodily. 

Nominate,  name. — To  name  is  to  mention  for  a  gen- 
eral purpose.  To  nominate  is  to  mention  for  a  specific 
purpose.  Only  persons  are  nominated.  Things  as  well 
as  ])ersons  are  named. 

Obstruct,  hinder,  prevent.  —  To  obstruct  is  to  place 
something  in  the  wav  of     To  hinder,  the  most  general 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  223 

of  these  terms,  now  means  simply  to  keep  one  from  his 
purpose  temporarily.  To  prevent  is  to  render  altogether 
impracticable.  To  hinder  supposes  no  design ;  to  pre- 
vent denotes  a  premeditated  act. 

Obviate,  prevent. — Prevent  means  so  to  hinder  that 
an  act  shall  not  happen  at  all.  Obviate  means  to  pre- 
vent its  happening  in  the  future.  Crimes  and  calamities 
should  be  prevented ;  difficulties,  inconveniences,  trouble, 
should  be  obviated. 

Outlive,  survive. — To  outlive  means  to  live  longer  than 
another;  to  survive  is  to  live  after  another,  or  after  certain 
antagonistic  iniluencte  have  been  overcome. 

Pardon,  excuse.- — To  excuse  is  applied  to  small  faults ; 
to  pardon,  to  greater  ones. 

Pare,  peel. — Pare  means  to  trim ;  peel,  to  take  off  the 
skin.  An  uncooked  potato  is  pared ;  when  cooked,  it 
may  be  peeled.  We  peel  an  orange,  but  pare  an  apple. 
To  peel  denotes  a  natural  process ;  to  pare,  an  artificial 
one. 

Prognosticate,  foretell. — To  foretell  is  to  tell  before- 
hand. To  prognosticate  is  to  know  beforehand,  A  phys- 
ician prognosticates  the  progress  of  a  disease  by  the 
symptoms  discoverable  in  the  patient. 

Raze,  demolish. — Raze  means  to  make  even  with  the 
ground.  Demolish  means  to  destroy  an  organized  body 
or  a  structural  mass,  as  the  walls  of  a  building. 

Recede,  retreat,  withdra'w. — To  recede  is  to  go  back ; 
the  action  is  suited  to  our  convenience.  To  retreat  is  to 
draw  back,  usually  from  necessity,  as  to  escape  danger. 
Withdraio  has  much  the  same  meaning  as  recede,  except 
that  recede  refers  to  going  back  from  a  given  spot,  whereas 
withdraiv  is  applied  wlrere  the  place  or  persons  are  con- 
cerned, as  we  withdraw  from  a  room  or  from  a  company 
of  persons. 


224  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Receive,  accept.  —  Used  as  synonyms,  to  receive  is 
to  take  back;  to  accept  is  to  take  to  one's  self.  We 
receive  what  is  our  own ;  we  accept  wliat  others 
offer  us. 

Recline,  repose. — To  recline  is  to  lean  back.  To  rqwse 
is  to  recline  in  such  a  position  as  is  most  easy  and  com- 
fortable. 

Recoil,  rebound. — Rebound  is  to  bound  back  or  spring 
back.  Recoil  is  to  coil  or  Avhirl  back.  A  ball  rebounds ; 
a  snake  recoils. 

Relieve,  alleviate.  —  To  relieve  is  to  remove  or  take 
away.  To  alleviate  is  to  lighten  or  lessen.  That  which 
removes  pain  relieves  it ;  that  which  affords  ease  from 
pain  alleviates  it. 

Share,  divide,  distribute. — To  divide  is  to  cut  or  sep- 
arate into  parts.  To  share  is  to  divide  into  parts  and 
give  those  parts  to  others,  reserving  one  or  more  parts 
for  ourselves.  To  distribute  is  to  give  all  the  parts  to 
otliers,  reserving  none  for  ourselves. 

Shut,  close. — To  close  means  to  bring  together  the  parts, 
as  we  close  the  eyelids.  To  shut  is  to  bring  the  parts  so 
close  together  that  there  can  be  no  ingress  or  egress. 
The  petals  of  a  flower  close.  AVe  close  a  book.  The 
door  of  a  house  is  shut.  One  may  shut  his  mouth  by 
closing  his  lips.  There  are  many  cases  whore  the  words 
may  be  used  intercliangeably. 

Slant,  slope.  —  These  words  have  substantially  the 
same  meaning,  but  their  application  varies.  Slant  is 
applied  to  small  bodies ;  slope^  to  those  that  are  either 
large  or  small.  My  pen  slants  as  I  write,  but  a  hillside 
slopes. 

Slip,  slide,  glide. — To  slip  means  an  involuntary  move- 
ment. Slide  refers  to  a  voluntary  movement.  Slip  and 
slide  indicate  lateral  movements  of  the  feet,  while  cjlide 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  225 

indicates  a  mov.ement  of  the  whole  body.  "We  glide 
when  we  slide;   a  ship  glides  in  the  water. 

Speak,  talk,  converse. — To  speak  is  simply  to  utter 
articulate  soundis.  To  talk  is  to  speak  to  others.  To 
converse  is  to  talk  with  others. 

Treasure,  hoard. — To  treasure  is  to  lay  up  for  the  sake 
of  preserving.  To  hoard  is  to  lay  up  for  the  sake  of 
accumulating. 

Utter,  speak. — To  utter  is  to  put  forth  a  vocal  sound. 
To  speak  is  to  utter  an  intelligible  sound.  We  may  utter 
a  groan,  but  we  S2:)eak  words. 

Yield,  submit. — To  yield  is  to  surrender  one's  self  in 
consequence  of  external  pressure.  To  submit  denotes 
more  of  a  voluntary  action  than  to  yield.  We  submit 
sometimes  because  we  deem  it  prudent,  and  our  submis- 
sion is  only  partial  or  temporary.  We  yield  because  we 
are  compelled,  and  the  yielding  is  final.  A  person  may 
submit  without  showing  any  resistance,  but  he  yields 
only  after  a  struggle. 

Adverb  Synonyms. 

Advisedly,  deliberately.  —  One  who  speaks  or  acts 
advisedly  does  so  with  a  full  knowledge  of  the  circum- 
stances and  the  consequences  of  his  conduct.  One  who 
speaks  or  acts  deliberately  takes  time  to  weigh  the  matter 
in  his  mind. 

Al^vays,  continually. — We  do  always  what  we  do  at 
all  times  and  on  all  occasions.  We  do  continually  that 
which  we  do  without  intermission. 

Almost,  nearly. — Almost  applies  to  matters  of  progres- 
sion, degree,  or  force.  Nearly  is  applied  to  matters  of 
time,  space,  and  fact.  Thus,  "  We  have  almost  finished 
the  work."  "  I  am  nearly  twenty  years  old."  Nearly  may 
be  preceded  b}'  a  negative ;  as,  "  It  is  not  nearly  so  cold 


226  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

as  it  was,"  but  almost  is  never  so  preceded.  A  man 
"almost  killed"  ma}'  have  been  seriously  hurt;  while 
a  man  "  nearly  killed "  has  escaped  entirely. 

Consequently,  therefore,  accordingly. — Consequently 
means  in  consequence  of;  it  is  employed  either  in  rea- 
soning or  in  narration.  Therefore  means  for  this  reason  ; 
it  implies  a  conclusion  and  is  employed  in  abstract  rea- 
soning. Accordingly  means  "  according  to  some  thing  or 
principle ;"  it  implies  an  agreement  or  an  adaptation, 
and  is  used  chiefly  in  narration. 

Especially,  particularly,  chiefly,  principally. — Espe- 
cially and  particularly  are  superlative  in  their  import. 
They  refer  to  one  object  out  of  the  many  that  is  supe- 
rior to  all  others.  Especially  is  the  stronger  word  of  the 
two.  The  words  are  used  as  follows :  "We  are  too  prone 
to  listen  to  the  evil  that  is  spoken  of  others,  especially 
of  our  enemies ;"  "  There  is  but  little  rainfall  in  some 
parts  of  the  West,  particularly  on  the  plains."  Chiefly 
and  principally  are  comparative  in  their  import.  They 
denote  a  superiority  over  only  some  others;  as,  "In- 
dians live  chiefly  in  the  Territories."  "They  mistake 
the  nature  of  criticism  who  think  its  business  is  prin- 
cipally to  find  fault." 

Frequently,  often.  —  Often  usually  refers  to  a  series 
known  to  be  established.  It  relates  to  a  standard  of 
frequency;  as,  "How  often  does  the  wheel  revolve?" 
"How  often  do  you  come?"  Frequently  denotes  the 
simple  repetition  of  anything  without  reference  to  any 
standard  or  order ;  as,  "  We  frequently  have  frost  in 
Octolx'r." 

Relatively,  comparatively.  —  Comparalively  denotes 
according  to  an  estimate  made  by  comparison.  It  is 
opposed  to  positively.  Relatively  means  according  to  a 
relation  to  something  else;   it  is  opposed  to  absolutely. 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  227 

Comparatively  regards  an  average ;  relatively,  a  standard. 
Thus,  "The  scliool  has  comparatively  few  students;" 
that  is,  considering  the  number  attending  other  schools 
of  like  grade.  "  There  were  relatively  few  in  attendance 
at  the  lecture;"  that  is,  regarding  the  matter  that  was  to 
be  discussed. 

Scarcely,  hardly.— These  words  in  many  cases  may 
be  used  interchangeably.  Where  there  is  a  difference 
scarcely  relates  to  quantity ;  hardly,  to  degree.  "  There 
was  scarcely  a  bushel ;"  "  It  is  hardly  cold  enough 
to  freeze." 

Preposition  Synonyms, 

About,  around,  round,  at. — About  is  less  precise  than 
around  or  at.  It  may  apply  to  {)lace,  time,  quantity,  or 
number;  as,  "About  the  house;"  "About  midday;" 
"  About  a  bushel ;"  "  About  twenty." 

Around  means  "  on  all  sides,"  "  encircled  like  a  ring 
or  a  globe."  It  implies  rest,  and  locates  place  more 
definitely  than  "  about ;"  as,  "  Around  the  fire-place," 
"Around  the  field."  Round  has  generally  reference  to 
a  rotary  movement  or  a  partial  encircling;  as,  "The 
longest  way  round  ;"  "  To  go  round  in  a  circle  ;"  "  Bread 
enough  to  go  round." 

At  means  nearness;  as,  "At  the  window;"  "At  4 
o'clock;"  "At  rest." 

At,  in. — These  two  words  are  frequently  used  in  speak- 
ing of  places  or  residence.  Usually  in  implies  enclosure ; 
as,  "We  stayed  in  Holland;"  "They  lived  in  Philadel- 
phia." It  also  is  more  generally  applied  to  countries  and 
larger  cities,  while  at  implies  nearness  to  a  point  or  bor- 
der, and  applies  to  smaller  places  or  foreign  cities ;  as, 
"  They  landed  at  Charleston ;"  "  He  stopped  in  New 
York,  but  he  lives  at  Dover." 


228  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Above,  over,  beyond. — These  terms  have  both  a  lit- 
eral and  a  figurative  meaning.  Above  means  higher  in 
position,  number,  degree,  rank,  etc. ;  as, "  The  room  above 
this;"  "The  moral  law  is  above  the  civil."  Over  indicates 
^vllat  is  expressed  by  afeore,  with  the  addition  oCthe  idea 
of  verticality  ;  as,  "  The  cliff  juts  over  the  river ;"  "  The 
clouds  hung  over  the  valley."  Beyond  relates  to  the 
measurement  of  distance,  usually  horizontal,  but  also 
sometimes  vertical;  as,  "The  forest  is  beyond  the  river;" 
"The  stars  are  beyond  the  moon." 

Above,  on,  upon. — On  and  upon  differ  from  above  and 
over  in  this,  that  tliey  imi)ly  contact;  as,  "The  book  is 
on  the  table;"  "  The  cu])  was  put  upon  the  shelf."  On 
and  upon  dififer  as  to  relative  height;  thus, on  is  pro])erly 
used  when  it  implies  contact  on  the  upper  side  of  any- 
thing, or  even  when  action  is  imi)lied  and  the  position 
is  low ;  as,  "  The  pen  is  on  the  table;"  "Throw  the  water 
on  the  grass."  Upon  denotes  that  the  position  is  one  of 
some  elevation,  nnd  generally  it  is  used  in  connection 
Avith  a  verb  implying  action  ;  as,  "  Upon  the  moun- 
tains;" "He  tossed  the  book  upon  (up  on)  the  shelf." 
The  two  words  are  now,  however,  almost  interchange- 
able. Sometimes  for  tlie  sake  of  euphony  or  rhythm, 
tipon  is  preferable  to  on;  also  when  motion  into  position 
is  involved. 

After,  behind.  —  After  has  special  reference  to  the 
order  to  whicli  two  things  belong  in  common,  espe- 
cially as  regards  time;  as,  "The  assembly  did  not  con- 
vene until  after  10  o'clock;"  "The  hounds  riin  after  the 
fox."  Behind  has  reference  to  the  position  of  two  things 
in  space,  without  any  notion  of  consecutiveness ;  as, 
"Behind  the  door;"  "The  tree  behind  the  house;" 
"He  has  left  no  estate  beliind  liim  to  create  contro- 
versv." 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  229 

Amid,  among.  —  Amid   and   amidst  mean   so   "  sur- 
rounded by"  as  to  be  in  the  midst;  as, 
"  Amid  the  lingering  liglit." 
"  Lead,  kindly  light,  amid  the  encircling  gloom 

Lead  thou  me  on." — Newman. 
"He  stood  firm  amidst  the  storm." 
"  Undaunted  amidst  insults  and  mockeries." 

Among  implies  number;  also,  "  mingling  with  ;"  as, 

"  Love  among  mortals  is  but  an  endless  sigh." — Longfelloio. 

"  Flowers  among  weeds." 

"To  be  happy  yourself  you  must  live  among  the  happy." — 
Disraeli. 

"  He  sent  his  apostles  forth  like  sheep  amongst  wolves." — 
Gcikie. 

Among-,  between.  —  The  distinction  between  among 
and  between  is  one  chiefly  as  to  number.  Between  has 
reference  to  two;  and  among,  to  more  than  two;  as, 
"Between  daylight  and  dark;"  "The  proceeds  were 
divided  between  the  merchant  and  his  partner;"  the 
adage  says,  "  There  is  honor  among  thieves,"  the  num- 
ber unlimited;  "  We  were  aniong  friends;"  "The  good 
opinion  of  the  teacher  soon  spread  among  the  pupils." 

Betwixt,  which  was  formerly  used  in  tlie  sense  of 
between,  is  now  rarely  used. 

Below,  under,  beneath. — Smith,  in  Synonyms  Discrim- 
inated, says,  "  That  which  we  are  under  is  that  by  which 
we  are  covered,  overhung,  or  overtopped.  That  Avhich 
we  are  below  is  simply  something  which  is  higher  than 
ourselves.  That  which  Ave  are  beneath  is  much  higher 
than  we." 

Beside,  besides. — Beside  means  "by  the  side  of"  or 
"at  the  side;"  as, 

"  A  cot  beside  the  sea." 

"  Lovely  Thais  sits  beside  thee." — Dryden. 


230  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Besides,  as  a  preposition,  means  "  in  addition  to  "  or  "  in 
connection  with ;''  as, 

"  Besides  his  wealth  he  has  few  claims  to  recognition." 
"  The  marquis  had  but  little  besides  his  palace." 

But.  —  But,  wlien  used  in  the  sense  of  except,  is  a 
preposition,  and  should  he  followed  by  the  objective 
case;  as, 

"  All  but  him  had  gone." 
"  The  boy  stood  on  the  burning  deck 
Whence  all  but  him  had  fled." — 3frs.  Hemans. 

Occasionally  hut  is  met  with  in  literature,  followed  by 
the  nominative  case  instead  of  the  objective,  as  in  the 
following  from  Scott: 

"Should  all  the  race  of  mortals  die, 
And  none  be  left  but  he  and  I." 

If  this  is  correct  usage,  as  is  claimed  by  some,  hut  is  a 
conjunction,  and  the  sense  of  the  sentence  is  "  And  none 
be  left  but  he  and  I "  (be  left).  Has  the  poet  violated 
a  grammatical  rule  to  make  /  rhyme  with  die?  It 
seems  so. 

By,  through,  with. — By  means  nearness. 

a.  In  place;  as, 

"  A  city  by  the  sea." 

"The  house  was  close  by  the  river." 

b.  In  time ;  as, 

"  We  shall  be  ready  by  Wednesday." 
"The  angel  came  by  night." — Stoddard. 

c.  In  means ;  as, 

"  Success  is  won  by  hard  work." 
"  Your  message  came  by  mail." 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  231 

d.  In  manner ;  as, 

"  We  grew  cold  by  degrees." 
"They  came  in  one  by  one." 

5?/ usually  refers  to  persons:  ivith,  to  things;  through 
may  refer  to  either.  Tims,  "The  path  having  become 
useless  through  neglect,  it  was  cleared  by  the  servants 
with  scythes  and  hoes."  By  denotes  the  agent ;  with, 
the  instrument ;  as,  "  He  was  shot  by  the  guard  with 
a  musket." 

Spurious  Words. 

A  number  of  words,  used  probably  first  by  the  uned- 
ucated, but  not  recognized  as  good  English,  have  found 
their  wa}'  into  our  language.  A  few  of  these,  usually 
known  as  spurious  words,  are  here  given. 

Authoress.  —  There  is  no  authority  for  this  word,  as 
there  is  none  for  j^oetess  or  loriteress.  There  are  but  few 
words  in  our  language  which  take  the  termination  ess, 
and  most  of  these  are  titles  which  primarily  denote  the 
names  of  males,  and  therefore  take  "  ess  "  to  denote  the 
feminine.  The  most  important  of  these  are  abbot,  baron, 
duke,  count,  emperor,  prince,  marquis,  and  a  few  others 
among  titles ;  also,  ambassador,  governor,  hunter,  priest, 
prophet,  etc.  But  in  the  case  of  the  words  author,  poet, 
conductor,  inspector,  etc.,  it  is  not  necessarily  the  man 
but  the  person  that  acts ;  hence,  sex  is  not  necessarily 
indicated  in  the  original  forms  author,  poet,  writer,  etc., 
and  no  distinctive  form  is  necessary  for  the  feminine. 

Agriadturalist  is  a  word  much  used  by  writers  on  agri- 
culture, but  it  has  no  legitimate  existence.  The  correct 
word  is  agriculturist.  ]\Intthews  remarks  that  we  might 
as  well  speak  of  a  geologicalist  or  a  chemicalist  as  an 
aericulturalist. 


232  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

C()ntrove7'siali.st  is  anotlier  spurious  word  occasional! v 
used.  The  word  is  derived  from  "controvert."  A  con- 
trovertist  is  one  who  controverts.  Tlie  office  being  al- 
ready filled  by  "controvertist"  and  "controverter,"  there 
is  no  place  for  "controversialist,"  which  could  mean  only 
one  who  "  controversials,"  a  term  which  is  unknown  to 
our  language. 

Donate  is  one  of  the  ill-born  words  for  which  the  lan- 
guage seems  to  have  no  use  so  long  as  we  have  the 
words  give,  present,  bestow,  grant,  etc.  But  donate  is  prob- 
ably no  worse  than  orate  from  oration,  collate  from  colla- 
tion, 'ovate  from  ovation,  and  the  like,  none  of  which 
should  be  recognized  as  legitimate  words,  or  be  used  by 
tliose  who  desire  to  speak  correct  English. 

Enthuse,  though  lately  growing  somewhat  into  favor, 
is  a  word  not  yet  recognized  by  the  best  authorities  as 
good  P]nglish. 

Firstly  is  sometimes  used  by  even  such  reputable 
writers  as  Dickens,  but  it  is  not  a  word  in  good  stand- 
ing. The  word  first  is  the  pro])er  word  whether  as  an 
adjective  or  as  an  adverb. 

Folks  for  folk  is  condemned  l)y  the  critics  because  the 
word  folk  already  im])lies  plurality. 

JI((d  have,  or,  as  it  is  often  written  by  the  illiterate, 
had  of  or  had  ov,  is  a  vulgarism  used  for  had.  The  proper 
expression  is  "  Had  I  seen  him,"  not  "  Had  I  have  seen 
liim." 

/////  is  frequently  used  for  ill.  Ill  may  be  used  as 
either  adverb  or  adjective.  There  is  no  such  word  as 
illU. 

Inniimerahle  Number.  —  This  expression,  occasionally 
used,  represents  something  impossible. 

Jeopardize  is  a  word  that  has  given  rise  to  some  dis- 
cussion.     The   original    word    is   jeopard,  which,   it   is 


CHOICE  OF   WORDS.  233 

claimed,  is  a  legitimate  English  word  as  old  as  the 
language,  meaning  "to  expose  to  loss  or  injur}',  to  im- 
peril, to  hazard."  The  word  jeojjarcUzc,  though  con- 
demned hy  such  writers  on  English  as  Gould  and  Rich- 
ard Grant  White,  has  still  made  considerable  prog- 
ress in  the  way  of  supplanting  jeopard.  But,  as  one 
writer  remarks,  there  seems  to  be  no  more  necessity 
for  the  word  than  there  is  for  jierilize,  hazardize,  and 
similar  words  yet  uncoined. 

Leniency  is  another  of  the  words  not  needed  in  our 
language.  We  already  have  leaUy  and  the  adjective 
lenient  to  cover  the  ground. 

Preventative^  a  spurious  form  for  preventive,  rotatory  for 
rotary,  casuality  for  casualty,  underhanded  for  underhand, 
speciality  for  specialty,  are  barbarisms  which,  as  Mat- 
thews says,  should  be  excommunicated. 

Stand-point,  though  much  used,  is  a  questionable  word. 
Why  we  should  have  stand-point  and  not  be  allowed  to 
use  start-point  as  a  legitimate  Avord,  is  difficult  to  un- 
derstand. The  correct  forms  are  "standing-point "  and 
"starting-point"  if  they  are  to  be  used.  Stand-point  is 
used  incorrectly  for  "  j)oint  of  view." 

Then  as  an  adjective,  as  in  "  The  then  king  of  France," 
is  sanctioned  by  some  authorities  and  condemned  by 
others. 

The  masses,  as  a  term  meaning  the  people  in  general, 
is  condemned  by  the  best  authorities  on  the  proper  use 
of  English.  In  the  statement,  "  It  is  a  conflict  between 
the  classes  and  the  masses,"  one  is  inclined  to  ask,  Masses 
of  what? 

Words  Liable  to  be  Misused. 

Words  are,  frequently  used  which  do  not  convey  the 
meaning   intended.      The   speech  of  the  Congressman 


234  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

•\vho,  wlien  an  insinuation  was  made  against  his  motives, 
indignantly  "  denied  the  allegation  and  defied  the  alli- 
gator," is  a  fair  illustration  of  how  easily  words  may 
be  miso])plied.  When  Shillaber  makes  Mrs.  Partington 
speak  of  the  (xsophagus  as  the  sarcophagus,  we  enjoy  the 
wit  because  we  know  that  the  wrong  word  has  been  used 
with  a  full  knowledge  of  its  meaning  for  the  purpose  of 
amusing  us ;  but  many  of  these  misused  words  are  mis- 
used ignorantly  or  carelessly. 

Frequently  words  that  differ  somewhat  in  meaning  are 
liable  to  be  substituted  for  each  other.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  give  the  proper  shade  of  meaning  to  each  word. 

Careless  or  thoughtless  writers  frequently  use  words 
loosely  Avithout  regard  to  the  exact  meaning.  Thus,  the 
word  party  is  often  used  improperl}'  for  the  word  person. 
A  person  is  an  individual  human  being ;  a  party  is  a  col- 
lection of  persons,  or  used  in  the  singular  it  is  one  who 
takes  a  part  or  is  a  party  to  a  suit  or  a  legal  document. 

Thus,  also,  the  word  success  is  sometimes  used  where 
the  adjective  successful  would  be  more  appropriate.  Thus, 
"  Our  meeting  was  a  great  success  "  might  be  expressed 
more  elegantly  by  the  form,  "  Our  meeting  was  very 
successful." 

The  word  teavi  is  a  word  frequently  misused.  The 
word  properly  means  "  two  or  more  animals  working 
together."  A  single  horse  is  not  a  team,  nor  is  a  horse 
and  a  carriage,  nor  are  two  or  more  horses  hitched  to  a 
wagon.  Two  or  more  horses  are  a  team  when  Avorking 
together,  but  the  wagon  or  other  vehicle  constitutes  no 
part  of  the  team.  Tiie  term  "  foot-ball  team  "  is  strictly 
correct. 

The  following  is  a  partial  list  of  words  liable  to  be 
misused. 

Accord  fur  grant.- — To  accord  means  to  agree  with  or 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  235 

to  suit;  as,  "That  accords  with  my  views,"  or  "Your 
views  accord  Avith  mine.''  But  in  the  expression,  "  He 
accorded  (granted)  me  many  privileges,"  the  word  grant 
implies  what  we  wish  to  say. 

Affable  for  good-natured.  —  Affable  means  easy  of 
approach  in  conversation,  ready  to  speak,  but  it  is  now 
applied  to  express  an  eas}"  and  considerate  manner  on 
the  part  of  persons  of  superior  position  to  those  of  infe- 
rior rank.     A  President  may  be  affable  to  his  guests. 

Aggravating  for  irritating. — Aggravating  means  mak- 
ing heavier  or  more  grave.  It  is  frequently  misused  for 
the  word  irritating,  which  means  exciting  unduly  in 
either  a  physical  or  a  mental  sense. 

All  of  them  for  them  all.  —  We  may  say  I  bought 
"  one  of  them  "  or  "two  of  them,"  but  not  "  all  of  them." 
Of  means  here  out  of,  and  cannot  be  used  with  all.  The 
proper  form  is  "them  all;"  thus,  "  I  bought  them  all." 

■Allude  for  say  or  mention,  —  To  allude  to  a  thing 
means  to  hint  at  it  playfully  without  any  direct  men- 
tion of  it.  As  an  example  of  its  misuse,  speakers  fre- 
quently say  as  follows :  "  The  gentleman  in  his  remarks 
has  alluded  to  my  speech  on  this  question."  It  Avould 
be  better  to  say  "has  mentioned  my  speech,"  or  "has 
referred  to  my  speech." 

Alternative. — Alternative  implies  a  choice  between  two 
things.  We  cannot  speak  of  two  alternatives  as  being 
offered,  but  one  alternative  or  choice.  When  that  choice 
has  been  made  there  remains  no  more.  Careless  writers 
speak  of  "  several  alternatives  "  having  been  jDresented 
or  offered. 

Antecedents. — This  word  is  used  frequently  in  refer- 
ence to  a  man's  previous  conduct  or  character,'  as  in 
"What  do  you  know  of  this  person's  antecedents?" 
Such  usage  is  not  correct.     The  antecedents  of  a  person 


23G  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

are  properly  those  wlio  have  jjrcceded  liim.  The  proj'jer 
form  of  the  question  is,  "  What  do  you  know  of  this 
person's  past  life?" 

Appreciates  for  rises. — The  word  '"  ai)[ireciate  "  is  often 
incorrectly  used  to  express  arise  in  price;  as,  "  Wheat 
has  appreciated  in  value."  In  this  sense  the  word  is 
improi)erly  used  for  rise  (risen). 

Apt  for  liable  or  likely. — Aj>t  means  the  possession 
of  mental  ability.  An  apt  ])erson  qualifies  himself  for 
any  work  with  comparative  ease.  Thus,  we  say,  "  He 
is  apt  to  learn,"  or  "  He  is  apt  to  teach."  Liable  ex- 
presses a  capability  of  being  acted  upon  ;  as,  "  We  are 
liable  to  catch  cold ;"  "  Iron  is  liable  to  rust."  Likely  is 
used  chiefly  in  the  sense  of  probability ;  as,  ''  It  will 
likely  rain  to-night."  Frequently  the  word  apt  is  im- 
properl}'  used  for  liable;  as,  ''The  weather  is  apt  (lia- 
ble) to  change  at  any  time ;"  "  We  are  apt  to  be  dis- 
appointed." 

At  all  is  a  needless  phrase.  It  adds  nothing  to  the 
meaning  or  force  of  an  exj)ression  in  which  it  is  used. 
"Nobody  at  all  was  injured  in  the  accident"  and  "  It 
was  not  at  all  strange,"  ex j tress  no  more  tlian  they 
would  by  tlie  omission  of  the  pln-ase  at  all. 

Balance  for  remainder  or  rest. — Balance  is  properly 
the  difference  between  the  two  sides  of  an  account. 
The  re-'it  is  that  which  remains  or  is  left  after  the  sepa- 
ration of  a  part  or  parts.  The  remninder  is  the  rest 
under  certain  conditions,  usually  the  smaller  part  which 
remains  after  the  greater  part  has  been  taken  away.  In- 
stead of  saying  "A  large  part  of  the  army  escaped,  l>ut 
the  balance  were  either  killed  or  wounded,"  say  "  the 
rest"  or  "the  remainder"  were  either  killed  or  wounded. 

Besides  I'or  beside. — Beside  is  a  preposition,  and  means 
"  by  the  side  of;"  as, 


CHOICE  OF   WORDS.  237 

"Harry  sits  beside  liis  mother." 

Usage  has  extended  the  meaning  to  "  out  of  the  regular 
course  "  and  "  out  of;"  thus, 

"It  is  beside  my  present  intention  to  disturb  those  in  oflRce." 

"  Paul,  thou  art  beside  thyself." 

Besides  is  a  preposition  when  it  means  "in  addition 
to ;"  as, 

"  Besides  the  children,  the  parents  were  much  interested." 

Besides  is  an  adverb  when  it  means  "  moreover;"  as, 
"Besides,  there  are  other  matters  to  be  looked  after." 

Both  alike. — The  word  "  both"  in  the  expression  "  both 
alike  "  is  superfluous.  If  two  things  are  alike,  each  is 
like  the  other,  and  "  The  two  are  alike,"  or  "  They  are 
alike,"  expresses  the  thought  correcth'. 

Bound  for  determined. — It  is  not  correct  English  to 
sa}' "  I  am  bound  to  go."  The  word  "  bound  "  is  here 
incorrectly  used  for  the  word  "  determined."  In  the  ex- 
pression "The  ship  is  bound  for  New  Orleans,"  the  word 
bound  is  derived  from  a  root  meaning  "  to  make  ready." 

Bourn  for  country. — Bourn  is  proper!}'  a  boundary 
or  limit,  and  is  correctl}'  used  in  Hamlet's  Soliloquy : 

"The  undiscovered  country  from  whose  bourn  (edge)  no 
traveler  returns." 

It  is  not  correct  to  use  "  bourn  "  as  referring  to  the  coun- 
try itself. 

Bring  for  fetch. — Bring  implies  motion  in  one  direc- 
tion only,  toward  the  speaker.  It  is  correct  to  say  to  a 
person  at  some  distance,  "  Bring  me  a  book ;"  "  Bring 
your  friend  with  you ;"  but  to  one  at  our  side  we  should 
say,  "  Fetch  me  the  book  from  the  library ;"  that  is,  mo- 
tion in  two  directions,  "go  and  bring,"  first  from  then  to 
the  speaker. 


238  GOOD  EXGLISn. 

But  for  that  or  if. — But  should  not  be  made  to  take 
the  place  of  that  or  if.  The  word  hutAs  incorrectly  used 
in  both  the  following  sentences:  "I  do  not  doubt  but 
[that]  lie  will  be  here;"  "I  should  not  wonder  but  [if] 
that  were  true." 

Calculated  for  likely. — Calculate  means  to  compute 
or  reckon,  but  its  })articiple  is  often  used  in  the  sense 
of  likely,  a  shorter  and  better  word  for  the  purpose. 
Thus, 

"  The  nomination  of  a  strong  partisan  is  calculated  [likely] 
to  arouse  the  opposition." 

Even  Goldsmith  says, 

"The  only  danger  that  attends  the  multiplicity  of  publica- 
tions is,  that  some  of  them  may  be  calculated  to  injure  rather 
than  benefit  society." 

Can  for  may.- — Can  expresses  power ;  may,  possibil- 
ity, permission,  probability.  I  can  do  tliat  which  I  have 
the  power  to  do.  I  may  do  tiiat  which  I  have  permis- 
sion to  do,  or  that  of  which  there  is  a  possibility  or  a 
probability  ;  ns,  "  I  may  be  in  tlie  City  to-morrow."  "  It 
may  rain  before  we  return."  "  How  many  pencils  can  I 
buy  for  a  dollar?"  "  How  many  pencils  may  be  bought 
for  a  dollar?" 

Carnival  for  festival  or  frolic. — Carnival  (carnis  vale") 
means  literally  a  farewell  to  flesh.  It  was  formerly  used 
to  signify  a  festival  celebrated  with  merriment  and  rev- 
elry the  week  before  Lent.  But  the  word  has  been  per- 
verted to  mean  almost  any  party,  frolic,  or  festival ;  and 
we  have  the  expressions  "boating  carnivals,"  "sleighing 
carnivals,"  "skating  carnivals,"  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  we  have  legitimate  words  appropriate  to  all  these 
frolics. 

Catch  for  overtake. —  CatcJt  for  overtake  is  a  common 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  239 

error,  so  often  made  that  many  will  hesitate  to  believe 
that  "  try  to  catch  a  car  "  is  not  better  than  "  try  to  over- 
take a  car,"  and  yet  the  former  is  not  a  correct  use  of 
"  catch,"  which  means  "  to  seize."  One  may  "  catch  up  " 
with  a  car,  but  not  "  catch  it "  in  the  sense  of  overtak- 
ing it. 

Citizen  for  person  or  resident. — A  citizen  is  one  who 
has  certain  legal  and  political  rights.  Aliens  are  not  cit- 
izens, and  persons  either  native  born  or  aliens  may  be 
residents  without  being  citizens.  The  word  "  citizen  "  is 
improperly  used  in  the  following:  "A  number  of  citizens 
on  the  train  offered  their  services  in  helping  to  care  for 
the  wounded."  The  expression  should  be  "  A  number 
of  persons,"  etc.  "The  citizens  of  the  town,  of  all 
classes  and  nationalities,  entered  tljeir  protest  against 
the  nuisance."     Better,  "  The  residents,"  etc. 

Consequence  for  importance. — Consequence  has  refer- 
ence to  what  follows  or  to  results.  The  root-word  is  sequor, 
to  follow.  Importance  refers  to  things  of  moment  in  them- 
selves. To  say  that  something  is  of  no  consequence  is  to 
say  that  it  is  of.  no  following  or  result.  The  jDroper  ex- 
pression is,  "  It  is  of  no  importance." 

Consider  for  think. — To  consider  is  to  ponder,  to  think 
about  carefully.  We  hear  the  expression,  "  We  do  not 
consider  the  topic  a  fit  one  for  open  discussion,"  or  "  We 
do  not  consider  him  fit  for  the  place,"  when  we  have  not 
considered.  We  mean  "  We  do  not  think  him  fit  for  the 
place." 

Contemptible  for  contemptuous. — Contewptible  means 
that  winch  deserves  contempt;  contemptuous  means  filled 
with  contempt.  There  may  be  contemptible  persons  and 
contemptible  acts.  Our  opinions  of  them  are  contemptu- 
ous. 

Convene  for  convoke. — Com^ene  means  to  come  to- 


240  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

gether ;  convoke,  to  call  together.  It  is  not  correct  to  say 
"  The  President  convenes  Congress."  The  President  may 
convoke  Congress,  but  Congress  convenes. 

Correspond  with  for  correspond  to. — Many  Avriters 
use  tliege  phrases  interchangeably.  Objects  correspond  to 
each  other;  persons,  with  each  other  by  writing.  Thus, 
"The  ornaments  correspond  to  each  other;''  "His  man- 
ner of  living  corresponds  to  his  means;"  "The  brothers 
corresponded  with  each  other  so  long  as  they  lived  apart." 

Couple  for  two. — A  couple  is  two  coupled  or  united  by 
some  bond.  A  man  and  his  wife  are  a  couple.  Even 
two  of  the  same  kind  are  not  always  a  couple.  Thus, 
two  gloves  or  two  shoes,  to  be  used  together,  are  a  pair ; 
two  partridges,  a  brace;  two  oxen,  a  yoke  or  pair;  two 
horses,  a  span  or  team.  Such  phrases  as  "a  couple  of 
eggs,"  "  a  couple  of  days,"  "  a  couple  of  dollars,"  "  a 
couple  of  books,"  etc.,  are  all  incorrect. 

Crime  for  sin  or  vice. — A  crime  is  a  violation  of  the 
civil  law.  What  is  a  crime  in  one  country  may  not  be 
a  crime  in  another,  and  what  is  a  crime  at  one  time  may 
not  be  a  crime  at  another,  because  the  laws  nmy  change. 
A  sin  is  a  violation  of  the  Divine  law.  Vice  is  a  course 
of  action  or  a  habit  of  life  which  is  harmful  to  the  actor 
and  harmful  to  others. 

Crushed  out  for  crushed. — Generally  the  word  crushed 
is  sufficient  to  express  the  thought  intended.  Thus, 
"  The  rebellion  Avas  crushed "  expresses  concisely  the 
thought  to  be  conveyed.  "  His  skull  was  crushed  "  is 
quite  as  expressive  as  "  His  skull  was  crushed  in." 

Curious  for  strange  or  remarkable. — Primarily  cu- 
rious meant  inquisitive,  and  it  is  still  used  in  this  sense. 
It  was  used  V)y  Addison  in  the  sense  of  internieddling 
willi  all  kn(nvlcdge.  It  is  sometimes  used  to  mean  nice 
or  intricate,  as  we  speak  of  images  "curiously  carved," 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  241 

but  its  use  for  strange,  remarkable,  or  queer  is  not  sanc- 
tioned by  the  best  usage. 

Deadly  for  deathly.  —  Deadly  is  that  which  causes 
death,  Avhile  dcaUihj  is  that  which  resembles  death. 
Thus,  "  a  deadly  weapon  ;"  "  a  deathly  pallor." 

Deceiving-  is  frequently  used  for  the  phrase  trying  to 
deceive.  It  is  thus  incorrectly  used  in  the  sentence  "You 
are  deceiving  me."  The  meaning  to  be  conveyed  is  that 
"you  are  misrepresenting  in  order  to  deceive." 

Decimated  for  reduced.  —  Deciraatcd  means  reduced 
by  one-tenth.  To  speak  of  a  regiment's  having  been 
decimated  by  one-third  is  of  course  incorrect. 

Defalcation  for  default. — -Defalcation  means  a  lopping 
off.  The  right  word  to  indicate  the  crime  of  not  paying 
to  the  proper  parties  the  money  which  one  has  collected 
for  them  is  default.  The  verb  indicating  this  action  is 
default,  and  the  criminal  is  a  defaulter. 

Delicious  for  delightful. — Delicious  relates  to  the  grat- 
ification of  the  senses.  Delightful  relates  to  the  state  of 
the  mind.  Thus,  we  say  "delicious  food,"  "delicious 
fragrance,"  "a  delicious  taste,"  etc.;  but  "delightful  mu- 
sic," "a  delightful  landscape,"  "a  delightful  entertain- 
ment." 

Depot  for  station.  —  A  depot  is  a  jjlace  of  deposit 
where  goods  are  placed  for  safe  keeping.  Station  is  the 
correct  name  of  the  place  at  which  passengers  gather  to 
take  the  cars.  One  would  not  say  "  The  next  depot  is 
Lancaster,"  but  "  The  next  station  is  Lancaster."  Lit- 
erally, the  expression  means  that  the  next  station  at 
which  the  train  stops  (sto,  stare,  to  stand)  is  Lancaster. 

Directly  for  immediately  or  instantly.  —  Directly  is 
applied  to  the  action  of  persons.  It  is  frequently  used 
in  the  sense  of  "  as  soon  as,"  but  incorrectly  so ;  as, 
"  Directly  he  stopped,  the  coffin  was  removed  by  four 

16 


242  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

men." — Dickens.  Directly  means  soon;  as,  "We  will  call 
them  directly."  Immediately  refers  to  the  course  of  time, 
and  signifies  "  without  interruption  or  intervening  time." 
Instantly  means  "in  an  instant;"  it  is  a  stronger  word 
than  "immediately." 

Dirt  for  earth  or  soil. — Dirt  is  filth.  The  word  has 
properly  no  other  meaning.  But  we  hear  persons  speak 
of  "  dirt  roads,"  meaning  unpaved  roads.  These  are 
in'operh"  earth  roads  or  gravel  roads.  The  word  dirt 
should  be  restricted  to  its  proper  use. 

Divine  for  clergyman. — Divine  is  properly  an  adjec- 
tive, but  it  is  frequently  used  as  a  noun  as  a  substitute 
for  the  word  clergyman,  a  much  more  appropriate  word. 

Dock  for  "wharf. — A  dock  is  an  open  place,  without  a 
roof,  into  which  anything,  usually  a  ship,  is  received 
and  enclosed  for  safety.  So  also  a  prisoner  is  placed  in 
the  dock  during  trial.  A  wharf  is  properly  the  pier  to 
which  a  vessel  is  fastened  while  it  lies  in  the  dock. 

Dress  for  gown. — Dress  is  really  a  general  term  in- 
cluding one's  entire  apparel,  undergarments  included. 
The  proper  word  to  apply  to  the  outer  garment  of  a 
woman,  often  known  as  a  dress,  is  goicn.  Frock,  though 
now  rarely  used,  is  applied  to  the  outer  apparel  of  either 
sex. 

Drive  for  ride. — Many  persons  make  a  distinction  in 
these  two  terms,  by  limiting  the  use  of  the  word  ride  to 
horseback  exercise,  whicli  might  now  be  extended  prob- 
a])ly  to  exercise  on  a  bicycle,  and  using  the  word  drive 
for  carriage-riding.  But  we  may  ride  on  horseback  or 
in  a  carriage.  We  may  take  a  horseback  ride,  a  carriage 
ride,  or  a  ride  in  the  cars.  The  action  in  any  of  these 
cases  is  riding;  the  person  who  manages  the  horse  or 
the  engine  is  the  driver.  "  To  take  a  boat  ride  or  a  car- 
riage ride  in  the  Park  "  is  correct  English.     "  To  take  a 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  243 

ride  in  the  Park  "  is  ambiguous.  It  may  mean  a  ride 
on  horseback  or  a  ride  in  a  carriage,  or  even  in  a  street- 
oar. 

Dry  for  thirsty. — Dry  denotes  the  absence  of  moist- 
ure.    Thirsty  signifies  the  desire  for  drink. 

Either. — The  hypercritical  object  to  the  use  of  the 
conjunction  cither  when  more  than  two  are  spoken  of. 
AVhile  either,  used  as  an  adjective,  as  "  Either  of  the 
boys,"  is  limited  in  its  application  to  two,  there  is  no 
such  restriction  in  its  use  as  a  conjunction,  the  correl- 
ative of  or.  We  may  say  "  Either  the  boy  or  his  sister," 
and  we  may  also  say,  "  Either  James,  George,  William, 
or  Henry,"  or  we  may  supply  the  conjunctions,  and  say, 
"  Either  James,  or  George,  or  William,  or  Henry,"  in 
which  case  either  is  used  as  a  correlative  with  each  of 
the  conjunctions  separately. 

The  foregoing  remarks  apply  with  equal  force  to  the 
use  of  neither  as  a  correlative  conjunction. 

Elder  for  older. — Elder  is  properly  applied  to  persons 
only,  while  older  is  applied  to  objects  of  any  kind,  ani- 
mate or  inanimate.  One  horse  or  one  book  may  be 
older,  but  never  elder,  than  another. 

Empty  for  vacant. — Empty  denotes  containing  noth- 
ing; as,  "an  empty  purse;"  "an  empty  pail."  Vacant 
refers  to  what  may  be  occupied  or  is  intended  to  be 
occupied ;  as,  "  a  vacant  chair."  A  house  is  vacant 
when  no  one  lives  in  it;  it  is  empty  when  it  is  devoid 
of  furniture  or  belongings. 

Enough  for  sufladent. — Enough  is  the  quantity  which 
one  wishes  to  have;  sufficient  is  the  quantity  which  one 
needs.     Enough  implies  more  than  sufficient. 

Epithet  for  name. — Epithet  is  given  by  dictionaries  as 
an  adjective.  The  noun  to  which  it  corresponds  is  name 
or  appellation.     The  words  "  villain,"  "  coward,"  "  fool," 


244  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

"  knave,"  are  ap})c'llations,  but  "  vile,"  "  cowardly,"  ''  fool- 
ish," "knavish,"  "good,"  "just,"  "honest,"  etc.,  are  epi- 
thets. The  import  of  epithet  may  be  either  good  or  bad. 
When,  therefore,  we  api)ly  an  epithet  to  a  person  we  use 
the  adjective ;  wlien  we  call  him  names  we  use  nouns. 

Equally  as  well  for  equally  well  or  as  ■well. — A<t  xcell 
as  means  substantially  the  same  as  "  equally."'  "  They 
can  do  this  equally  well,"  or  "  They  can  do  this  as  well 
as  we,"  is  correct;  but  "They  can  do  this  equally  as 
well,"  or  "  equally  as  well  as,"  is  tautological. 

Every  for  all. — The  word  every  in  such  expressions  as 
"  ever}"  praise,"  "  every  confidence,"  and  the  like,  is  used 
incorrectly.  If  there  were  a  number  of  praises  or  con- 
fidences, these  expressions  might  be  correct,  for  every 
means  "  each  of  all."  It  cannot  be  applied  to  abstrac- 
tions. If  we  mean  the  term  to  ap})ly  to  a  number  col- 
lectively or  to  abstractions,  the  proper  word  is  all;  as, 
"All  men  are  liable  to  err;"  "  We  had  all  confidence  in 
him." 

Evidence  for  testimony. — Evidence  is  frequenth^  mis- 
used for  the  word  testimony.  "  Evidence  relates  to  the 
convictive  view  of  one's  mind  ;  testimony,  to  the  know- 
ledge of  another  concerning  some  fact,"  says  Matthews. 
In  fact,  the  evidence  in  a  case  is  sometimes  the  reverse 
of  the  testimony. 

Except  for  unless. — Except  is  a  preposition.  It  cannot 
be  used  to  connect  clauses.  The  correct  word  to  use  where 
a  clause  is  to  be  added  is  the  conjunction  unless.  Thus, 
"  No  one  need  apply  except  he  has  a  certificate,"  should 
be  "  No  one  need  apply  unless  he  has  a  certificate." 

Excessively  for  exceedingly. — "  E-rceedinf/ly  hot "  may 
mean  sini})ly  very  hot;  "  r.'xv'.ss/re/y  Aoi "  indicates  an  ex- 
cess of  heat.  We  may  not  object  to  great  cold,  but  we 
may  complain  wlieu  it  is  excessively  cold. 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  245 

Executed  for  hanged. — Latterl}'  the  word  executed  has 
in  a  measure  taken  the  place  of  the  word  hanged.  To 
exeade  is  "to  carry  out,  to  perform."  Thus,  "The  Pres- 
ident is  bound  to  execute  the  haws."  But  it  will  be 
noticed  that  no  sucli  meaning  as  "  carry  out "  or  "  j^er- 
form  "  can  be  applied  to  the  taking  of  one's  life  by 
hanging,  in  the  execution  of  the  law.  As  between  the 
two  words  hanged  and  Juing,  the  former  is  the  proper 
Avord  for  depriving  of  life  by  hanging.  Our  clothes  are 
hung  in  the  wardrobe,  and  banners  are  hung  on  the 
walls,  but  persons  are  hanged  by  the  neck  to  deprive 
them  of  life. 

Exemplary  for  excellent.  —  Exempkn-ij  means  more 
than  excellent,  though  frequently  used  as  a  synonym  for 
this  word.  Exemplary  refers  really  to  setting  an  exam- 
ple that  should  be  followed,  as  in  "exemplary  conduct." 

Expect  for  suppose. — The  word  expect  is  loosely  used 
for  think,  suppose,  guess.  It  should  be  used  only  in  re- 
ferring to  that  which  is  to  come.  Thus,  "  I  suppose  you 
had  an  enjoyable  visit;"  "I  expect  you  will  have  an 
enjoyable  visit." 

Experience  for  receive  or  suffer. — Thus,  we  svffer  dis- 
comfort or  receive  unkind  treatment.  We  do  not  prop- 
erly experience  either,  though  it  has  been  so  Avritten, 
but  incorrectly,  "The  prisoners  experienced  many  hard- 
ships." "  Experienced  "  is  also  improperly  used  iov  felt, 
as  in  the  following :  "  The  child  experienced  a  new  sen- 
sation." I 

Extend  for  send.  —  Nearly  every  society  now  "ex- 
tends" invitations  Avhen  it  should  "send"  them.  Ex- 
tend means  to  "stretch  forth."  Do  we  mean  to  stretch 
forth  an  invitation  when  we  send  it?  "Extend"  is,  of 
course,  much  used  in  the  sense  of  "send,"  but  not 
correctly  so. 


2-16  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Factor  for  feature. — Factor  is  a  mucli  misuseJ  word 
when  it  is  substituted  for  the  word  feature.  Thus,  "  One 
of  the  important  factors  of  the  painting  was  a  beautiful 
sunset  scene."  The  writer  meant,  of  course,  one  of  the 
im])ortant /(?a/ures  of  the  j^ainting. 

Female  for  woinan. — As  an  adjective  to  denote  sex 
the  word  female  is  permissible,  as  in  speaking  of  teach- 
ers they  are  referred  to  in  reports  and  elsewhere  as  male 
teachers  and  female  teachers.  As  a  noun  the  word  female 
may  be  applied  to  other  animals  as  well  as  man,  and  it 
should  not  be  used  in  place  of  the  word  woman.  We 
speak  of  the  human  members  of  the  male  sex  as  men  or 
gentlemen;  we  should  in  the  same  manner  speak  of  the 
human  members  of  the  female  sex  as  women  or  ladies. 

Few,  a  few. — The  accuracy  of  the  expression  a  few 
has  been  questioned.  A  few  and  a  many^  with  proper 
modifications,  are  correct.  Feu\  preceded  by  a,  means 
''some;"  as,  "A  few  (some)  came  yesterda}'."  Feio., 
without  the  article,  means  "  almost  none ;"  as,  "  Few 
came  to-day."  In  the  sentence  "  A  great  many  came," 
a  great,  meaning  "  very,"  is  properly  a  complex  adverb 
modifying  the  adjective  many.  We  have  the  expression 
in  another  form : 

"  Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  bhish  unseen," 

Avliere  many  a  is  a  complex  adjective  modifying  tlie 
noun  floiver ;  and  full,  an  adverb,  modifying  the  adjec- 
tive "  many  a." 

Figure  fur  amount,  sum,  or  number.  • —  Common 
usage  lias  made  tlie  word  figure  do  dut}^  for  the  ex- 
pressions amount,  number,  sum.  Tlius,  we  liave  "Seven 
hundred  and  twenty  doHars,  or  about  tliat  figure 
[amount];"  "The  united  sales  amounted  to  a  very 
large  figure  [sum]."     Even  Dean  Trench  uses  the  ex- 


CHOICE  OF   WORDS.  247 

pression,  "has  attained  a  circulation  of  1000;  no  very 
large  figure  [number],  certainly." 

Final  completion. — The  adjective  "  final ''  is  here  un- 
necessary, as  every  completion  is  final. 

Fly  for  flee. — These  two  words  are  frequently  misused, 
one  for  the  other.  Fly  means  to  move  with  wings,  either 
swiftly  or  slowly.  Flee  means  to  move  away  with  vol- 
untary rapidity.  "  Fly  to  the  mountains  for  safety  " 
evidently  should  be  "  Flee  to  the  mountains,"  etc.  A 
newspaper  lately,  in  referring  to  the  burning  of  a  sem- 
inary building  crowded  with  girls,  says  that  "  the  fire 
burned  so  rapidly  aiid  the  danger  became  so  great, 
that  the  students  were  compelled  to  fly  in  their  night- 
clothes." 

From  hence,  from  thence,  from  •whence. — In  each 
of  these  expressions  the  word  from  is  superfluous. 
Whence  means  "from  where;"  therefore  "from  Avhence" 
means  "  from  from  w'here."  The  same  is  true  of  the 
words  hence  and  thence,  each  includes  the  Avord  from  as 
part  of  its  meaning.  "  From  whence  cometh  my  help?" 
should  be  "Whence  cometh  my  help?" 

Graduated. — Shall  we  say  graduated  at  or  ica.s  gradu- 
ated from  f  Modern  usage  seems  to  sanction  either  form. 
Gould,  in  Good  Fnglish,  refers  to  a  memoir  of  Noah 
Webster,  in  which  it  is  stated  that  he  graduated  with 
reputation  in  1788,  and  then  adds,  "  The  biographer 
might  as  well  have  said  that 'he  born  on  the  IGth  of 
October,  1758.'"  There  can  be  no  question  that  the 
form  teas  graduated,  meaning  "  was  graded,"'  is  correct, 
and  one  can  make  no  mistake  in  using  that  form.  The 
institution  does  the  graduating,  and  the  student  is  grad- 
uated. 

Gratuitous  for  unwarranted  or  unreasonable. — The 
word  gratuitous  means  "  without  recompense  or  equiv- 


243  GOOD  EXGLISH. 

alent/'  or  "  without  proof."  A  gratuitous  assertion  is 
therefore  properly  one  that  has  no  proof,  or  is  un- 
founded; but  an  umcarrarded  or  unreasonable  assertion 
is  not  necessarily  a  gratuitous  assertion. 

Grow  for  become. — Grou:  means  to  increase,  to  be- 
come larger  in  quantitv.  quality,  or  condition.  Thus,  a 
smooth  sea  may  become  rough  and  groir  rougher ;  a  clear 
night  may  become  dark  and  grow  black  or  darker;  the 
moon  may  grow  brighter,  but  become  smaller. 

Ice-cream  and  ice-tea  are  terms  now  commonly  used 
for  what  are  properly  '"  iced-cream  "  and  "  iced-tea." 

Issue  for  number. — A  paper  or  a  magazine  is  issued 
at  regular  periods,  and  numbered  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  times  it  has  been  issued  during  a  definite  period. 
We  should  speak,  therefore,  not  of  '"  a  late  issue  "  or  "'  a 
recent  issue,"  but  of  a  late  or  a  recent  number  of  a  paper. 

Je-w,  Hebrew,  Israelite. — These  words  are  now  prop- 
erly synonyms.  Originally  they  were  terms  applied  to 
the  race.  A  prominent  writer  says,  "  Under  the  theoc- 
racy they  were  known  as  Hebreirs.  under  the  monarchy 
as  Israelite.?,  and  under  foreign  domination  as  Jeics."  At 
present  they  are  known  as  Hebreits  in  race  and  language, 
as  Israelites  in  religion,  and  as  Jevcs  in  all  three  senses. 
We  may  speak  of  the  Hebrew  language  or  the  Hebrew 
race,  but  not  of  the  Hebrew  religion.  ''  Jewish  "  is  now 
more  commonly  applied  than  "  Israelilish  "  to  the  re- 
ligion. 

Jewelry  for  jewels.  —  Jeicelry  properly  refers  to  the 
place  where  jewels  are  kept.  It  belongs  to  the  same 
class  of  words  as  library,  shrubbery,  armory,  grocery, 
infirmary,  etc..  all  of  which  indicate  place.  "  These  are 
my  jeiceli.'^  said  the  mother  of  the  Gracchi. 

Lady  fur  wife. — The  word  lady  b  interchangeable  with 
the  word  tcoman.    The  word  irije  is  used  in  a  more  re- 


CHOICE  OF   WORDS.  249 

stricted  sense.  A  cultured  man  never  refers  to  bis  wile 
as  his  lady. 

Last  for  latest. — The  Icist  has  no  successors.  Last  has 
reference  to  the  order  of  succession ;  latest  has  reference 
to  the  order  of  time.  We  should  therefore  sa}',  "  I  have 
received  your  latest  letter,"  not  "  your  last  letter."  Many 
others  may  follow  the  lated. 

Leave. — This  word  is  frequently,  though  incorrectly, 
used  without  an  object;  as,  "I  shall  leave  to-morrow." 
The  object  should  be  mentioned ;  as,  "  I  leave  the  city 
to-morrow,"  or  "  I  leave  home  this  morning." 

Less  for  fewer. — Less  refers  to  size ;  jeucer^  to  number. 
We  should  not  say  "  There  were  less  than  fifty  present," 
but  "  There  were  fewer  than  fifty  present." 

Lie,  lay, — The  forms  of  the  intransitive  verb  //e,  mean- 
ing to  recline,  are  Zie,  Za?/,  lain.  Thus,  "  I  lie  on  the  couch 
now.,  I  lay  on  it  yesterday.  I  have  lain  on  it  frequently. 
I  will  lie  on  it  to-morrow." 

The  forms  of  the  transitive  verb  lay  are  Zay,  /atW,  laid. 
Lay  denotes  transitive  action. 

The  following  sentences  show  the  distinction  between 
the  words : 

Present. — I  lie  on  the  lounge  (rest) ;  I  lay  the  child  on 
the  lounge  Taction). 

Fast. — I  lay  on  the  bed  yesterday  (rest) ;  I  laid  the 
child  on  the  bed  (action). 

Present  Perfect. — I  have  lain  on  the  lounge  (rest) ;  I 
have  laid  the  child  on  the  lounge  (action). 

Future. — I  will  lie  on  the  lounge  (rest; ;  I  will  lay  the 
child  on  the  lounge  (action). 

Errors  in  the  use  of  these  words  are  frequent. 

Senate  Rule  II.  says,  "  When  a  question  is  under  de- 
bate, no  motion  shall  be  received  but  to  adjourn,  to  lie 
on  the  table,"  etc.     A  rule  of  the  House  of  Representa- 


250  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

lives  uses  the  same  expression.  Of  course  the  phrase 
should  be  "to  lay  on  the  table;"  that  is,  to  lay  a  motion 
or  a  jrroposition  on  the  table.  As  the  rule  stands,  it  would 
seem  to  mean  that  a  member  of  the  Senate  or  of  the 
House  is  privileged  to  make  a  motion  (movement?)  to 
lie  on  the  table.  The  rule  as  it  stands  might  be  con- 
strued as  a  reflection  on  the  sobriety  of  Congress. 

Likewise  for  also. — Likewise  couples  actions  or  states 
of  being;  also  classes  together  objects  or  qualities.  Thus, 
"  Tlie  canary  sang  cheerily  and  the  ro]»in  likewise;"  "He 
is  witty,  also  wise." 

Loan  for  lend. — Loan  is  used  properly  as  a  noun,  tbe 
name  of  the  thing  lent.  The  word  expressing  the  action 
is  lend.     Thus,  "  Lend  me  your  knife." 

Most  for  almost, — Most  is  the  superlative  of  much, 
and  refers  to  quantity  or  degree.  Most  is  frequently 
used  incorrectly  in  the  sense  of  almost  or  nearly,;  as, 
"Most  anybody  would  like  the  work." 

Most  for  very. — Must  is  frequently  used  improperly 
for  very.     Thus, 

"I  had  not  boeu  long  at  tlie  university  before  I  distinguished 
myself  by  a  most  profound  silence." — Addison. 

"He  was  a  most  complete  orator  and  debater  in  the  House 
of  Commons." — Chesterfield. 

"  His  affections  were  so  social  and  generous  that  when  he 
had  money,  he  gave  it  most  liberally  away."  —  W.  Irving. 

Mutual  for  common. — Mntval  means  reciprocal.  It 
refers  to  actions  or  sentiments,  not  to  objects.  Love  or 
friendship  may  be  mutual,  but  friends  cannot  be  mu- 
tual. "  Our  Mutual  Friend  "  is  a  misnomer.  We  may 
speak  of  our  common  friend  if  necessary,  as  we  speak 
of  our  common  enemy ;  that  is,  the  friend  of  two  or 
more  in  common. 

One,  when  usctl  in  the  plural,  is  not  grammatically 


CHOICE  OF   WORDS.  251 

incorrect,  but  it  is  better  not  to  use  the  expression  as  in 
"  I  found  several  very  good  ones  among  tlie  books  he 
bought."  Omit  the  words  very  good,  and  the  sense  is 
destroyed. 

One-half  for  a  half. — Inasmuch  as  tliere  can  be  only 
one  half,  as  two  halves  are  a  whole  one,  it  is  better  to 
say  -'two  and  a  half,"  "six  and  a  half,"  etc.,  than  two 
and  one-half  or  six  and  one-half.  Such  expressions  as 
"  two  and  one-fourth  "  or  "  two  and  three- fourths,"  are 
correct. 

Partially  for  partly. — Partially  means  properly  "  with 
unjust  bias."  When  anything  is  done  in  part  it  is  partly 
done. 

Patron  for  customer. — One  who  deals  with  another 
or  buys  of  him  is  a  customer,  not  a  patron. 

People  for  persons. — People  means  a  body  of  persons 
regarded  collectively,  a  nation.  "  Many  people  are  of 
this  opinion,"  should  be  "  Man}-  persons  are  of  this 
opinion." 

Plenty  for  plentiful. — Plentiful  denotes  the  presence 
of  plenty,  and  is  the  proper  form  for  tlie  adjective. 
Thus,  "  We  have  a  plentiful  supply ;"  "  Money  will  be 
plentiful." 

Portion  for  part. — A  portion  is  a  part  set  aside  for  a 
special  purpose  or  to  be  considered  by  itself  A  jjart  is 
usually  an  indefinite  portion.  Thus,  "  Some  parts  of 
the  city  were  crowded." 

Present  for  introduce. — Present  means  to  introduce  to 
superiors.  Thus,  persons  of  certain  rank  are  presented 
at  court,  and  foreign  ministers  are  presented  to  the  Pres- 
ident of  our  own  countr3^  Friends  are  introduced.  We 
introduce  our  friends  to  eacli  other,  usually  the  younger 
to  the  older,  a  gentleman  to  a  lady,  the  person  in  the 
lower  position  to  the  one  in  the  higher. 


252  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Previous  for  previously. — Tlie  latter  is  the  adverbial 
form,  and  is  the  correct  one  to  use  in  modifying  a  verb. 
Thus,  "  Previously  to  my  coming  no  one  iiad  been 
here." 

Promise  for  assure. — The  former  word  is  frequently 
misused  for  tlie  latter.  Thus,  "  I  promise  you  I  was 
much  delighted." 

Proposition  for  proposal. — A  'proposition  is  something 
submitted  for  one's  consideration;  a  proposal  is  a  thing 
proposed  or  something  offered  to  be  done. 

Proven  for  proved. — The  verb  prove  is  regarded  by 
gi-ammarians  as  a  regular  verb,  whose  past  tense  ends  in 
ed.  Proved  is  therefore  the  correct  past  tense  form,  and 
there  is  no  need  of  tlie  word  "  proven,"  though  it  is  fre- 
quently used. 

Purpose  for  propose. — Purpose  indicates  a  settled  state 
of  mind ;  propose  indicates  only  a  contingent  state.  I  pur- 
pose to  do  that  on  which  my  decision  is  fixed.  1  pro- 
pose to  do  that  on  which  my  mind  has  not  definitely 
decided. 

Quantity  for  number. — The  word  quant  if;/  sliould  be 
used  in  connection  with  a  mass  not  to  be  counted ;  as, 
"a  quantity  of  wheat,"  or  "a  quantity  of  iron;"  but 
when  speaking  of  individual  objects  the  word  nuviber 
is  the  proper  word  to  use ;  as,  "  a  number  of  sticks,"  "  a 
number  of  books,"  "  a  number  of  persons." 

Quite  for  very. —  Quite  means  completely  or  entirely. 
Such  expressions  as  "quite  a  number,"  "quite  an  exhi- 
bition," "  quite  cold,"  arc  not  in  accordance  with  the 
best  usage;  but  we  may  say  "quite  full,"  "quite 
empty,"  etc. 

Recommend  for  advise  or  request.  —  Recommend 
means  literally  to  re-commend,  or  coiiuiiciid  to  some 
one  else.     In  the  sentence,  ^^  Jicsolvcd, — That  the  mem- 


CHOICE  OF   WORDS.  253 

hers  of  this  association  be  recommended  to  meet  at  9 
o'clock,"  etc.,  the  word  "  advised  "  should  be  substituted 
for  the  word  "recommended." 

Religious,  pious.  —  A  iilous  man  has  reverence  and 
love  for  a  supreme  being.  A  religious  man  acknowledges 
a  bond  which  requires  tlie  performance  of  certain  duties 
and  rites  in  relation  to  a  supreme  being  or  to  a  future 
state,  or  to  both.  Jews,  jNIohammedans,  Christians,  es- 
pouse different  religions,  but  the  piety  of  all  of  them  is 
the  same. 

Remember  for  recollect. — What  we  hold  in  the  mind 
we  reinember,  what  we  recall  on  effort  we  recollect.  We 
may  remember  and  not  be  able  to  recall  or  recollect  when 
Ave  wish  to  do  so.  We  cannot  recollect  without  remem- 
bering. 

Remit  for  send.  —  The  word  remit  means  to  "send 
again,"  or  "  to  send  back,"  and  there  seems  to  be  no 
good  reason  why  it  should  be  used  for  the  word  send. 
If  one  were  to  comply  literally  with  the  request  to  remit 
when  a  bill  is  sent,  he  would  send  the  bill  back  instead 
of  pa^nng  it.  The  word  has,  however,  found  a  place  in 
commercial  transactions  from  which  it  could  be  dis- 
lodged with  difficulty. 

Rendition  for  rendering-. — Rendition  denotes  surrender- 
or giving  up,  as  when  we  speak  of  the  rendition  of  a  be- 
sieged town  or  the  rendition  of  a  pledge  for  the  payment 
of  a  debt.  When  a  drama  is  well  presented  we  say  cor- 
rectl}'  that  "the  rendering  of  the  play  was  admirable." 

Restive  for  restless.  —  Bestivc  means  standing  stub- 
bornly still,  as  a  balky  horse.  Restless  implies  uneasy 
motion. 

Reverend,  honorable.  —  These  words  are  adjectives, 
and  should  be  used  only  with  the  names  to  which  they 
belong.     The  definite  article  is  always  used  with  them. 


254  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Thus,  '•  The  Rev.  Mr.  Miller,"'  "  The  Rev.  James  Dob- 
son,"  "The  Hon.  Mr.  Stevens." 

Section  for  neighborhood,  vicinity,  region. — The  use 
of  the  word  section  in  the  sense  here  noted,  originated 
probably  in  connection  with  the  land  sections  of  the 
West,  but  it  is  not  applicable  to  the  words  "  neighbor- 
hood," "  vicinity,"  or  "  region,"  and  it  should  not  be 
used  in  their  stead. 

Shall,  •will. — Probably  no  two  words  in  our  language 
are  more  frequently  used  incorrectly  than  shall  and  ivill. 

The  following  are  the  simplest  rules  for  the  use  of 
these  words  in  independent  sentences : 

To  denote  futuriUj  or  to  predict,  shall  is  used  in  the  first 
person,  and  icill  in  the  second  and  the  third.     Thus, 

1.  "  I  shall  be  there." 

2.  "  Will  j-ou  be  there?" 

3.  "  He  will  be  there." 

In  promises,  ivill  is  used  in  the  first  person  and  shall  in 
the  second  and  the  third.     Thus, 

1.  "I  will  go." 

2.  "  You  shall  go." 

3.  "He  shall  go." 

In  dependent  sentences,  the  usage  is  as  follows: 
When  a  subordinate  noun-clause  is  introduced  by  the 
word  that  and  modifies  such  verbs  as  say,  fear,  think,  etc., 
if  the  noun-clause  and  the  principal  clause  have  differ- 
ent subjects,  the  distinction  is  the  same  as  in  independ- 
ent sentences.     Thus, 

1.  "The  teacher  says  that  Horace  will  come  well  prepared." 
(Futurity.) 

2.  "  ]\Iothcr  says  that  you  will  have  a  pleasant  visit."  (Futu- 
rity.) 

3.  "My  fatlier  predicts  that  I  shall  succeed."  (Futurity.) 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  255 

4.  "  They  say  that  Henry  shall  go  with  us."  (Promise  or 
volition.) 

5.  "  The  teacher  says  that  you  shall  shut  the  door."  (Voli- 
tion.) 

6.  "The  hoy  fears  that  I  will  punish  him."  (Volition.) 

When  the  subordinate  clause  and  the  principal  clause 
have  the  same  subject,  and  in  all  dependent  clauses  in- 
troduced by  if,  w'/iCH,  although,  etc.,  shall  is  used  to  express 
futurity  in  all  the  persons,  and  will  in  all  the  persons 
implies  an  exercise  of  the  will  on  the  part  of  the  person 
represented  by  the  subject  of  the  clause.     Thus, 

1.  "The  doctor  saj's  that  he  shall  be  pleased  to  go  with  us." 
(Futurity.) 

2.  "  I  think  I  shall  be  glad  to  know  your  friends." 

3.  "  You  fear  that  you  shall  fail" 

4.  "  Henry  says  that  he  will  meet  us  at  the  office." 

5.  "  You  said  that  you  will  j^ay  the  expenses." 

6.  "  I  think  that  I  will  go  along." 

7.  "  When  He  shall  appear,  we  shall  be  like  Him." 

8.  "  If  you  will  let  me  help  you,  I  shall  be  greatly  pleased." 

9.  "  If  he  will  give  us  permission,  we  will  hold  the  concert  in 
the  chapel." 

10.  "Although  we  will  not  consent,  they  will  leave  at  day- 
break." 

Shall  and  Will  in  Questions. 

In  questions  will  is  never  correctly  used  in  the  first 
person  except  when  it  repeats  a  question  asked  by  some 
one  else ;  as,  "  Will  3'ou  lend  me  your  knife  ?"  "  W^ill  I 
lend  you  my  knife?     Certainly." 

In  questions  in  which  the  second  or  the  third  person 
is  used,  the  auxiliary  which  is  expected  in  the  answer  is 
used  in  the  question.     Thus, 

"  Shall  you  be  glad  to  take  the  trip?"    "  I  shall."  (Futurity.) 
"  Will  you  go  with  us?"     "  I  will."  (Volition.) 
"  Will  vour  brother  tro  with  us?"     " He  will." 


256  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Should,  •would. — Should  is  the  past  tense  of  shall;  and 
would,  the  past  tense  of  ivill. 

The  rules  which  govern  the  use  of  "shall"  and  "  will" 
apply  also  to  the  use  of  "  should  "  and  "  would,"  but 
shoidd  and  would  have  in  addition  certain  meanings  of 
their  own  to  which  attention  must  be  given. 

Should  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  "  ought ;"  as, 
"  You  should  attend  to  the  work  promptly  ;"  "  I  should 
have  gone  ;"  "  They  should  have  informed  us." 

Shoidd  is  used  also  in  a  conditional  sense;  as,  "If  it 
should  be  very  cold,  we  would  not  go." 

Would  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  habitual  action  ; 
as,  "  Mother  would  sit  in  her  easy-chair  and  watch  the 
children  at  their  play." 

Would  also  sometimes  expresses  a  wish,  as  in  David's 
Lament,  "  Would  God,  I  had  died  for  thee,  0  Absalom, 
my  son,  my  son  !" 

They  who  keep  in  mind  these  special  meanings  of 
should  and  would  may  safely  follow  the  rules  given  for 
shall  and  will,  remembering  that  "should"  and  "would" 
are  simply  the  past  tenses  of  these  words. 

Sit,  set,  settle. — Sit  is  an  active  but  intransitive  verb, 
and  like  lie  it  implies  rest.  Set  is  a  transitive  verb  that 
implies  action ;  it  needs  an  object  to  complete  its  mean- 
ing. 

The  principal  parts  of  sit  are  sit,  sat,  sat;  of  set,  tliey 
are  set,  set,  set. 

The  use  of  the  words  may  be  distinguished  as  follows: 

Present. — I  sit  on  the  bench  (rest). 

I  set  the  pitcher  on  the  table  (action). 
Past. — I  sat  on  the  bench  (rest). 

I  set  the  broom  in  the  closet  (action). 
Pres.  Per/. — I  have  sat  on  the  bench  (rest). 

I  have  set  the  broom  in  the  closet  (action). 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  257 

Of  the  verb  sit^  the  other  tense  forms  in  the  indicative 
are  "  had  sat,"  "  will  sit,"  "  will  have  sat." 

Of  the  verb  set,  the  remaining  tense  forms  in  the  in- 
dicative are  "  had  set,"  "  will  set,"  "  will  have  set." 

The  query  as  to  whether  we  should  say  a  "  sitting 
hen  "  or  a  "setting  hen,"  may  be  answered  by  saying, 
We  set  the  hen,  she  sits,  and  is  a  sitting  hen.  As  to  a 
"  sitting  "  or  a  "  setting  "  of  eggs,  they  are  to  be  set  or 
placed  in  the  nest,  and  are  therefore  a  "  setting  of  eggs." 

Why  not  say  "  The  sun  sits  "  instead  of  "  The  gun 
sets,"  inasmuch  as  the  action  is  intransitive?  The  word 
sets  in  this  case  comes  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  setlgange,  ior 
settling.  "  The  sun  sets  in  the  West "  is  only  another 
form  for  "  The  sun  settles  in  the  West,"  in  which  settles 
is  an  intransitive  verb. 

Social  for  sociable. — Sociable  means  fitted  for  society, 
quick  to  unite  with  others,  usually  for  pleasure.  Social 
denotes  the  relation  of  men  in  society,  or  communities, 
or  commonwealths.  Thus,  persons  who  are  quick  to 
join  with  others  in  a  friendly  way  are  sociable.  A  man 
may  be  deeply  interested  in  social  science  and  yet  not 
be  sociable. 

State  for  say. — State  in  the  sense  of  say  is  a  useless 
word.  It  really  means  to  set  forth  the  condition  under 
which  a  person  or  a  thing  stands.  Thus,  a  bank  states 
its  condition  ;  a  debater  states  a  proposition. 

Stop  for  stay. — We  stay  at  a  hotel,  not  stop.  One  may 
stop  at  a  hotel  as  he  stops  temporarily  at  a  street-corner, 
but  his  remaining  for  a  time  at  a  hotel  or  other  place  of 
entertainment  is  expressed  by  the  word  stay. 

Storming'  for  raining-. — A  storm  is  a  commotion  of 
the  elements.    It  needs  more  than  rain  to  make  a  storm. 
Thus,  we  may  have  a  ivind-storm,  a  hail-storm  of  wind  and 
hail,  or  a  rain-storm  of  wind  and  rain. 
17 


258  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

Such  for  so. — Such.,  an  adjective,  is  incorrectly  used 
for  so.  Thus,  when  one  says  that  he  never  saw  "such 
a  vicious  dog,"  he  means  to  modify  the  adjective 
'■  vicious,"  and  he  therefore  sliould  use  the  adverb  so, 
and  express  the  sentence  thus,  "  I  never  saw  so  vicious 
a  dog." 

Than  you  can  help. — This  expression  is  frequently 
used  in  such  sentences  as  "  Make  no  more  noise  than 
you  can  help,"  which  really  means  "  Make  no  noise  that 
you  cannot  help,"  or  "  Make  all  the  noise  you  can."  A 
better  form  would  be,  "  Make  no  noise  that  you  can 
avoid  (or  help)." 

The  first  for  any. — "  The  first "  as  a  substitute  for  any 
is  an  expression  for  which  there  seems  to  be  no  necessity. 
The  following  are  fair  examples  of  its  improper  use  for 
the  word  any :  "  I  haven't  the  first  objection  to  your  re- 
maining ;"  "  I  have  yet  to  see  the  first  instance  of  any 
one's  succeeding  under  such  circumstances." 

These  kind,  those  sort,  and  similar  expressions, 
where  an  adjective  denoting  plurality  is  used  to  mod- 
ify a  noun  in  the  singular  number,  are  incorrect.  The 
correct  forms  are  "this  kind,"  "that  sort,"  etc. 

Transpire  for  occur,  pass. —  Transpire  means  to  breathe 
through  or  across.  It  cannot  be  used  correctly  in  the 
sense  of  occur  or  pass.  Everits  occur  and  years  pass,  but 
neither  events  nor  years  transpire.  It  is  never  correct 
to  use  the  word  "  transpire  "  where  the  phrase  "  to  take 
])lace"  can  be  substituted. 

Truism  for  truth. — A  truism  is  a  self-evident  truth ; 
as,  "All  men  are  bipeds."  "The  sum  of  the  three  an- 
gles of  a  triangle  is  equal  to  two  right  angles  "  is  a  truth, 
but  it  needs  proof  or  demonstration,  and  is  not  therefore 
a  truism. 

Try  for  make. — The  word  try  is  incorrectly  used  in 


CHOICE  OF  WORDS.  259 

connection  with  the  word  experiment.  We  do  not  try 
an  experiment;  we  make  an  experiment. 

Ugly  for  ill-tempered. — Though  not  in  general  use, 
the  word  ugly  is  sometimes  used  for  ill-tempered.  Tlius, 
"  He  is  ugly  in  liis  conduct ;"  "  The  boy  has  an  ugly  dis- 
position." In  such  cases  the  word  ill-tempered  is  usu- 
ally the  proper  substitute  for  the  word  ugly. 

Veracity  for  truth. — These  words  are  synonyms,  but 
the  expression  "  a  man  of  truth  and  veracit\^  "  is  fre- 
quenth'  used.  Veracity  is  properl}'  applied  to  persons, 
and  truth,  to  statements.  Thus,  we  speak  of  a  man's 
veracity,  but  of  the  truth  or  truthfulness  of  an  assertion. 

Verbal  for  oral.  —  Verbal  means  consisting  of  words, 
which  may  be  either  spoken  or  written.  Oral  refers  to 
spoken  words  only.  A  verbal  report,  so  often  referred 
to,  is  simply  a  report  in  words.  We  should  speak  of  a 
spoken  report,  therefore,  as  an  oral  report. 

Vicinity. — The  word  vicinity  should  not  be  used  with- 
out its  being  preceded  by  a  modifj'ing  word.  We  may 
say  "  This  city  and  vicinity  "  because  a  modifying  word, 
this,  is  understood  before  vicinity,  and  we  may  say 
"  Philadelphia  and  its  vicinity,"  but  not  "  Philadelphia 
and  vicinity." 

"Widow  -woman  for  widow.  —  Widrnv  is  the  proper 
appellation  for  a  woman  whose  husband  has  died.  The 
word  woman  is  superfluous.  We  might  as  well  use  the 
expression  "  a  widower  man  "  as  "  a  widow  woman." 

Whereabouts.  —  There  is  a  strong  tendency  to  use 
this  word  in  the  plural,  probably  because  it  ends  with 
s.  Thus,  a  newspaper  says,  "  The  whereabouts  of  the 
escaped  prisoner  are  unknown."  "  His  whereabouts 
have  not  been  discovered."  Whereabouts  is  in  the  sin- 
gular number.  It  means  simply  one's  location  or  abid- 
ing-place.    Think  of  saying  "'  His  abiding-place  are  un- 


260  GOOD  ENGLISH. 

known  " !  The  verb  agreeing  with  "  whereabouts  "  must 
be  in  the  singuhir  number. 

"Whole  for  all,  —  Whole  refers  to  the  component  parts 
of  a  single  body.  It  is  therefore  singular  in  meaning. 
All  denotes  a  collection  of  individuals.  It  is  better, 
therefore,  to  say  "  All  of  the  family  are  present "  than 
"The  whole  of  the  family  are  present." 

The  Spectator  says,  "The  Red-Cross  Knight  runs 
through  the  whole  steps  of  the  Christian  life."  It 
should  be  "  all  the  steps  "  instead  of  "  the  whole  steps." 
Alison,  in  his  "History  of  the  French  Revolution,"  says, 
"  The  whole  Russians  are  inspired  with  the  belief  that 
their  mission  is  to  conquer  the  world."  He  should  have 
said  "  All  the  Russians  are,"  etc. 

Witness  for  see.  —  Witness  as  a  verb  means  to  be  able 
to  give  testimony  from  personal  knowledge.  We  may 
witness  a  theft,  a  murder,  or  the  execution  of  a  deed,  in 
each  case  so  as  to  be  able  to  give  testimony.  We  see,  we 
do  not  witness,  a  scene,  a  mountain,  a  painting,  or  any 
other  ol)ject. 


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